About personality Psychology
- QUICK SPOT & ADAPTTM version of:GPS Your Brain to Succeed w/ All Personality Types - You have to pay for this program.
- Personality psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - ""Personality" is a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences their environment,cognitions, emotions, motivations, andbehavioral science in various situations. The word "personality" originates from the Latin persona, which means mask.Personality also refers to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments, and behaviors consistently exhibited over time that strongly influences one's expectations, self-perceptions, values, and attitudes. It also predicts human reactions to other people, problems, and stress. There is still no universal consensus on the definition of "personality" in psychology."
- Theories of Personality | Simply Psychology - "The idiographic view assumes that each person has a unique psychological structure and that some traits are possessed by only one person; and that there are times when it is impossible to compare one person with others. It tends to use case studies for information gathering.The nomothetic view, on the other hand, emphasizes comparability among individuals. This viewpoint sees traits as having the same psychological meaning in everyone. This approach tends to use self-report personality questions, factor analysis, etc. People differ in their positions along a continuum in the same set of traits."
- What Is Personality Psychology? - "Trait Theories:The trait theories of personality are centered on the idea that personality is made up of a number of different broad traits or dispositions....Psychoanalytic Theories.Behavioral Theories.Humanist Theories" Trigger warning: Talks about personality disorders.
- Personality Psychology: Definition & Theories - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- The Personality Project - "What has changed over the past twenty years is an exciting blend of newer quantitative techniques mixed with a better understanding of how biological and genetic determinants of individual differences combine with developmental experiences to produce the incredible diversity that we know as personality. These pages are meant to guide those interested in personality theory and research to the current personality research literature. Although some of the readings are available on-line, all should be available from most university libraries. Abstracts of many recent articles are available by using search engines, particularly Google Scholar."
Appearance emotionalism
- Appearance Emotionalism @ Thinking On Music - “ Like human action, the momentum of music seems purposeful and goal-directed. This perception is part of our broader tendency to personify the things we experience. We are, for example, more likely to notice how weeping willows look like sad people than how they resemble frozen waterfalls. Similarly, we detect in music a dynamic character relating to our own expressive behavior. This is true of all music, be it concrete or abstract, tonal or atonal, formal or informal.”
- @Gpedia - “ Davies claims that expressiveness is an objective property of music and not subjective in the sense of being projected into the music by the listener.”
- Music, Singing, and Emotions: Exploring the Connections @ Themelios from The Gospel Coalition - “music appears to be sad (for example) in the same way that a weeping willow looks sad.”
- Answered by Curtis Lindsay @ Quora - “in most cases B will not describe as "sad and heavy" the same musical example which A has just described as ‘happy and energetic.’”
- @ Organic Beats - “Which in the simplest terms says music is not sad because it feels sad, but rather because expresses sadness. It is effectively sad in it’s appearance. In the same way a person’s posture, or attitude can convey a certain emotion, so can music through structural characteristics. “
- Musical Understandings and Other Essays on the Philosophy of Music by Stephen Davies | Hanne Appelqvist @ Academia.edu
SKIN TEMPERATURE
- Relationship of skin temperature changes to the emotions accompanying music. @ PubMed - NCBI - “During the second musical selection, skin temperature tended to increase whichever music was played; however, the increases were significant only during the calm, positive emotion music”
- Why we get goosebumps: Video explains why music and movies give you the chills | Daily Mail Online - “Listening to music also triggers the reaction in a majority of adults, as it can create chilling feelings of social loss.”
- Here's why some people get 'skin orgasms' from listening to music @ ScienceAlert - “The experience is called frisson (pronounced free-sawn), a French term meaning "aesthetic chills," and it feels like waves of pleasure running all over your skin. Some researchers have even dubbed it a 'skin orgasm.'Listening to emotionally moving music is the most common trigger of frisson, but some feel it while looking at beautiful artwork, watching a particularly moving scene in a movie, or having physical contact with another person.“
- Why does music give some people ‘skin-gasms’? @ Dangerous Minds
- The Influence of Preferred Relaxing Music on Measures of State Anxiety, Relaxation, and Physiological Responses - “Physiological data showed that the music aroused and excited rather than soothed autonomic and muscular activity. Significant subject × time interaction effects for muscle tension and vascular constriction and significant differences between subjects for finger skin temperature were found...”
- Relationship of skin temperature changes to the emotions accompanying music @ SpringerLink - “During the first musical selection that was presented, the arousing, negative emotion music terminated skin temperature increases and perpetuated skin temperature decreases, whereas the calm, positive emotion selection terminated skin temperature decreases and perpetuated skin temperature increases. “
Performance features
- @ Wikipedia - “Performer skills are the compound ability and appearance of the performer; including physical appearance, reputation and technical skills. The performer state is the interpretation, motivation, and stage presence of the performer.”
Structural features
RECOGNIZE EMOTIONS through MUSIC
- Research Links Music and Emotional Awareness @ Heart-Mind Online - “Music has long been considered an activity that promotes healthy brain development and function. Becoming more established in the literature, musical experiences are felt to:sharpen the brain’s ability to “encode” which is a skill that is used in listening, language and reading.act as a protective factor for school achievement against risks such as attendance, self-efficacy and school behaviours in urban youth help individuals navigate their social worlds by improving motivation, self-perception, self-esteem, self-awareness, creativity, social skills, and friendships.”
- What Is it About Music That Triggers All of These Emotions? @ Smithsonian - “How do the rise and fall of the melody or the pace of the tempo convey emotion? Is there something inherent to music, wrapped up in the way it interacts with our brains and the way we think that causes it to make us feel so many feelings? Or is the wail of the sad trombone just a piece of cultural baggage, something we’ve picked up from societal norms?”
- The Arousal and Expression of Emotion by Music @ ProQuest
- Experience Changes How Emotion in Music Is Judged: Evidence from Children Listening with Bilateral Cochlear Implants, Bimodal Devices, and Normal Hearing @ PLOS ONE - “Seventy-five participants completed the Montreal Emotion Identification Test. Thirty-three had normal hearing (aged 6.6 to 40.0 years) and 42 children had hearing loss and used bilateral auditory prostheses (31 bilaterally implanted and 11 unilaterally implanted with contralateral hearing aid use). Reaction time and accuracy were measured. Accurate judgment of emotion in music was achieved across ages and musical experience. Musical training accentuated the reliance on mode cues which developed with age in the normal hearing group.”
- What does music express? Basic emotions and beyond @ NCBI - “These layers enable listeners to perceive more complex emotions—though the expressions are less cross-culturally invariant and more dependent on the social context and/or the individual listener. This multiple-layer conceptualization of expression in music can help to explain both similarities and differences between vocal and musical expression of emotions.”
- Are Emotions in Music Universal? @ Psychology Today - “The study could show that the basic emotions happiness, sadness and fear could be picked up (above
- chance level) by both listener groups from each others music. Below a video fragment reporting on the study from the German tv-station Deutsche Welle:”
- Universal Recognition of Three Basic Emotions in Music @ Current Biology - “Experiment 1 investigated the ability to recognize three basic emotions (happy, sad, scared/fearful) expressed in Western music. Results show that the Mafas recognized happy, sad, and scared/fearful Western music excerpts above chance, indicating that the expression of these basic emotions in Western music can be recognized universally. Experiment 2 examined how a spectral manipulation of original, naturalistic music affects the perceived pleasantness of music in Western as well as in Mafa listeners”
- Comparison of emotion recognition from facial expression and music. @ NCBI - “The recognition of basic emotions in everyday communication involves interpretation of different visual and auditory clues. The ability to recognize emotions is not clearly determined as their presentation is usually very short (micro expressions), whereas the recognition itself does not have to be a conscious process.”
- Music induces universal emotion-related psychophysiological responses: comparing Canadian listeners to Congolese Pygmies @ NCBI - “While Pygmy music was rated as positive and arousing by Pygmies, ratings of Western music by Westerners covered the range from arousing to calming and from positive to negative. Comparing psychophysiological responses to emotional qualities of Pygmy music across participant groups showed no similarities. However, Western stimuli, rated as high and low arousing by Canadians, created similar responses in both participant groups (with high arousal associated with increases in subjective and physiological activation). “
- Expression of emotion in music and vocal communication edited by Anjali Bhatara, Petri Laukka, Daniel J. Levitin Preview @ Google Books
- Musicians' Brains 'Fine-Tuned' to Identify Emotion @ Northwestern University News - “The results were not exactly what the researchers expected. They found that musicians' brainstems lock onto the complex part of the sound known to carry more emotional elements but de-emphasize the simpler (less emotion conveying) part of the sound. This was not the case in non-musicians.”
- Correlations Between Musical Descriptors and Emotions Recognized in Beethoven’s Eroica @ Music Technology Group - “In this preliminary study, participants rated how strongly they recognized the six GEMS emotions (transcendence, peacefulness, power, joyful activation, tension, and sadness) while listening to excerpts from Beethoven’s Eroica.”
- Do kids recognize emotion in music? @ Cognitive Daily - “The participants listened to 32 pieces of classical music, 16 of which were determined to be “happy” and 16 “sad” in a previous study. In addition, the same pieces were systematically altered by changing mode (from major to minor key or vice versa), tempo, or both. Sad music is generally played in a minor key at a slow tempo, and happy music is usually played fast and in a major key.”
- Music Games for Emotional Intelligence @ Kindermusik
- Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory
Juslin & Västfjäll's BRECVEM model & Aesthetic Judgement
- @Wikipedia - Brain Stem Reflex.Rhythmic Entrainment.Evaluative Conditioning.Emotional Contagion.Visual Imagery.Episodic memory.Musical expectancy
- Why music is so popular and its characteristic | tsesenhin - “Brain Stem Reflex – The sudden rise of the most basic characteristic of the music such as loudness can be signal as urgent situation, thou triggers emotion such as fearRhythmic Entertainment- The powerful rhythmic triggers biological reaction that synchronize itself with the rhythmic such as heartbeat that produced the emotion.Evaluative Conditioning- refers music is being conditioned with emotion before hand. Emotional Contagion- perceives the emotion of the music and copy them internally. Visual imagery- emotion is triggered because listener raises visual image while listening to music. Episodic memory- emotion is triggered because listeners raises emotional memory from the past while listening to music.Musical expectancy- emotions arise due to the confirmation or disappointment of predicting specific feature of music .”
- @ Ipode Book - “Such responses reflect the impact of auditory sensations – music as sound in the most basic sense.'....This may produce an increased level of arousal in the listener....'a particular piece of music may have occurred repeatedly together in time with a specific event that always made you happy (e.g., meeting your best friend)....This refers to a process whereby an emotion is induced by a piece of music because the listener perceives the emotional expression of the music....This refers to a process whereby an emotion is induced in a listener...This refers to a process whereby an emotion is induced in a listener because the music evokes a memory of a particular event in the listener’s life...This refers to a process whereby an emotion is induced in a listener “
emotional memories & actions
- Music-Memory Connection Found in Brain @ Live Science - “‘What seems to happen is that a piece of familiar music serves as a soundtrack for a mental movie that starts playing in our head." said Petr Janata, a cognitive neuroscientist at University of California, Davis. "It calls back memories of a particular person or place, and you might all of a sudden see that person's face in your mind's eye.’”
- Music Memories :: Cream @ The Innovation Exchange - “‘Mindshare’s insight: Recent research shows that music has a seemingly magical ability to unlock memories in Alzheimer’s patients. Neurologist Oliver Sacks says, “Music evokes emotion, and emotion can bring with it memory… it brings back the feeling of life when nothing else can.’”
- Why does music evoke memories? BBC - “The hippocampus and the frontal cortex are two large areas in the brain associated with memory and they take in a great deal of information every minute. Retrieving it is not always easy. It doesn’t simply come when you ask it to. Music helps because it provides a rhythm and rhyme and sometimes alliteration which helps to unlock that information with cues. It is the structure of the song that helps us to remember it, as well as the melody and the images the words provoke.”
- Music, memory and emotion @NCBI - “Musical sounds, like all auditory signals, unfold over time. It is therefore necessary for the auditory system to integrate the sequentially ordered sounds into a coherent musical perception. This series-to-parallel transformation can be considered a mechanism of working memory, which temporarily stores auditory units and combines them into a single percept (such as a sound pattern, rhythm or melody).”
- The effect of background music on episodic memory and autonomic responses: listening to emotionally touching music enhances facial memory capacity @ Scientific Reports - “In the study or learning session, participants sat comfortably in front of a computer screen at a distance of 114 cm in an anechoic chamber under dimly lit conditions. A total of 300 faces were randomly presented at the center of the screen for 800 ms each with an ISI of 1300 ms. The stimuli were equally divided as a function of auditory background conditions (each auditory clip lasting 60 seconds) and matched across categories for sex, age, expression, valence and arousal. Stimulus delivery was performed using Evoke software (Asa System). Subjects wore headphones and wrist devises that measured heart rate and blood pressure.”
- Music, Memories, and Emotions @ Atonal. UCDavis.edu - “We have approached the problem by first characterizing the content of music-evoked autobiographical memories in college students, and then performing a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study with some of these subjects. “
- Music & Memory (dot)org
- Why Do the Songs from Your Past Evoke Such Vivid Memories? @ Psychology Today - “Interestingly, the highest number of MEAMs in the whole group was recorded by one of the ABI patients. In all those studied, the majority of MEAMs were of a person, people or a life period, and were typically positive. Songs that evoked a memory were noted as being more familiar and more well liked than songs that did not trigger a MEAM. This is common sense.”
SPIRAL ARRAY MODEL
- @ Wikipedia - “A mathematical model involving concentric helices (an "array of spirals"), it represents human perceptions of pitches, chords and keys in the same geometric space...For example, it is possible to model and measure geometrically the distance between a particular pitch and a particular key, both represented as points in the spiral array space. “
- MIT Press Journals@ MIT Press Journals
- Spiral Array Model @ Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing - “The model covering basic pitch, major chords, minor chords, major keys and minor keys comprises five concentric helixes. Starting with a formulation of the pitch spiral, inner spirals are generated by a convex combination of points on outer spirals. For example, the pitches C, E, and G are represented as points by the cartesian coordinates C(x,y,z), E(x,y,z) and G(x,y,z). The convex combination formed by the points CEG is a triangle, and represents the "center of effect" of the three pitches. This convex combination represents the triad, or chord, CEG (the C major chord) in the spiral array model. The geometric center (or other point chosen by a weighting of the constituent points, as seen in the equations below) of the C major chord (formed by CEG) can be called the "center" of the C major chord, and assigned a point CM(x,y,z). Similarly, keys may be constructed by the centers of effect of their I, IV, and V chords.”
elicited emotion /CONVEYED EMOTIONS WILE LISTENING TO MUSIC
- Music in the Brain: The Mysterious Power of Music @ Dart Mouth- “According to Meyer, there is: “on the physiological level music evokes definite and impressive responses (5).” In studies that record pulse, blood pressure, and respiration while individuals listen to various types of music, subjects exhibit physiological changes when they listen to different passages of music considered to convey different types of emotions.”
- the mental and emotional effects of music TED Talk uploaded by Zach Church
- Songs and emotions: are lyrics and melodies equal partners? @ Sage Pub
- The Emotion of Music: How Music Affects Emotions @ PIT Journal Submission Site
- Intensity of Emotions Conveyed and Elicited by Familiar and Unfamiliar Music on JSTOR
- @Wikipedia - “The structural features of music not only help convey an emotional message to the listener, but also may create emotion in the listener.”
- Music & How It Impacts Your Brain, Emotions @ Psych Central - “More than any other stimulus, music has the ability to conjure up images and feelings that need not necessarily be directly reflected in memory. The overall phenomenon still retains a certain level of mystery; the reasons behind the ‘thrill’ of listening to music is strongly tied in with various theories based on synesthesia.”
- How Music Impacts, Helps Our Emotions @ World of Psychology - “While depressed, she often listened to music that reflected sadness and emotional pain. However, Cyndi also noted that she had a passion for upbeat, energetic music that made her want to dance and feel free from emotional struggle. But she rarely felt this energy and freedom without the music fostering it.”
- Music induced emotions: Some current issues and crossmodal comparisons by Joydeep Bhattacharya @ Academia.edu
- How does music elicit emotions? @ Quora
- Music evokes vicarious emotions in listeners @ NCBI - Therefore, we hypothesized that, although sad music is perceived as sad, listeners actually feel (experience) pleasant emotions concurrent with sadness.
- How does music Effect your Emotions? by Rachel Rose on Prezi
- Why Does Music Move Us So? @ Phenomena National Geographic - “The experiment hinges on a computer program, written by Sievers, that allows participants to create their own melodies or bouncing-ball animations by adjusting five slider bars. Each bar represents a different aspect of the sound or movie: rate sets how many beats per minute; jitter determines the predictability of those beats; smoothness can add a spiky texture to the ball and dissonance to the music; step size gives the height of the bounce and distance between notes; and direction controls whether the ball leans forward or backward and the pitch of the notes.
- Listen to Music, Observe Emotions in Your Body — Attentional Fitness Training @ At Home in your Life
- How Music Affects Our Moods @ Health Line - “‘The results help us to pinpoint the ways people regulate their mood with the help of music, as well as how music rehabilitation and music therapy might tap into these processes of comfort, relief, and enjoyment,’ said lead author, Tuomas Eerola, Ph.D., a professor of music cognition at Durham University, in a press release.”
- "Music conveys stories and emotions and connects people", Tod Machover (MIT) @ OpenMind - Interview.
- Music Quotes on language which speaks in emotions @ Brain Training Tools
- Music and Emotion @ MIR.UNCC - “The concept of `musical emotion' has many conceptual difficulties. Sloboda and Juslin (2001) describe how emotion theories such as Frijda's (1988) are beneficial to the study of musical emotions. They state that music psychologists generally are reluctant to turn to emotion psychology for theoretical guidance. On the other hand, they hold that it is interesting to note that psychologists themselves do acknowledge that art may evoke strong emotional response, but few scientists seem to have considered this problem worthy of study. Sloboda and Juslin (2001) state it is significant that one of the most influential analysis of music and emotion to date, namely that of Meyer (1956) is based on a theory of emotion.”
- Emotion in Popular Music: A Psychological Perspective @ Cairn.info - “For example, a study published over two articles by Gilman (1892a; 1892b) reported responses to a range of musical scenarios based on pieces played at a piano and violin recital, where in some instances emotion-like responses were solicited”
- Putting the emo in emotional: How music conveys and changes emotion @ PsychNeuro - “Also perhaps more interesting than the differences between the deaf and hearing children is the fact that at some level even people who have had little exposure to music in their daily life were able to correctly judge the composers intended emotions at all. “
- Music evokes vicarious emotions in listeners @ NCBI - “We consider musically evoked emotion vicarious, as we are not threatened when we experience it, in the way that we can be during the course of experiencing emotion in daily life. When we listen to sad music, we experience vicarious sadness. In this review, we propose two sides to sadness by suggesting vicarious emotion.”
- @ Wikipedia - “Half the participants described the emotions the music conveyed, and the other half responded with how the music made them feel. The results found that emotions conveyed by music were more intense than the emotions elicited by the same piece of music.”
- How To Gain The Power To Create Intense Musical Emotion @ Muses Muse - “Have you ever wondered how your favorite musicians make such great music? The answer is this: They fully understand how musical emotion works, and how to use this to create intense emotions in YOU while you listen to them. Understanding musical expression is key to becoming a great guitar player and musician. When you control emotion in music, you will gain the power to greatly affect the listener’s experience.”nferior Frontal Gyrus Activation Underlies the Perception of Emotions, While Precuneus Activation Underlies the Feeling of Emotions during Music Listening @ Hindawi - “I conducted a comparative study of the different brain areas involved in perceiving and feeling emotions during music listening. I measured fMRI signals while participants assessed the emotional expression of music (perceived emotion) and their emotional responses to music (felt emotion). I found that cortical areas including the prefrontal, auditory, cingulate, and posterior parietal cortices were consistently activated by the perceived and felt emotional tasks.”
- The mind on music @ The Seattle Times - “‘You could have a really positive emotional experience with a song that structurally communicates sadness,” said Meagan Curtis, assistant professor of psychology at State University of New York at Purchase, who does research in music psychology....What matters most in reaping the health benefits of music, from pain reduction to stress relief, is that you listen to music you enjoy, research shows. “
- Music and Emotion @THE SYNC PROJECT - “It has been proposed (12) that the aforementioned human mirror neuron system could in fact also encode the movements conveyed by melodies. This would mean that the system might process movement in music like physical movement. In other words, an upward going melody would be processed in the brain as upward movement. And as upward movement is typically related to experiences like jumping for joy, this mirroring in the brain (however, without overt movement) would contribute to the recognition and experience of the emotion conveyed by the music. “
EXPRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
- @Wikipedia - “Studies using facial electromyography (EMG) have found that people react with subliminal facial expressions when listening to expressive music.[13] In addition, music provides a stimulus for expressive behavior in many social contexts, such as concerts, dances, and ceremonies.”
- Musical Expression and Musical Meaning @ Carleton - “Music thus distills certain aspects of human expressive behavior, especially that of the voice, and renders those aspects into dynamic musical shapes.. Levinson's claim that music can express some higher emotions (such as hope) is based on the claim that some higher emotions have characteristic physiognomies that can be musically portrayed”
- Expressive Behavior @ Encyclopedia.com - “Spontaneous expressions can be collected systematically by exposing the subject to specific stimuli (sudden noises, sweet music, pain); by time sampling during standardized or experimentally varied conditions (stress, task failure); or by electrical brain stimulation (Hess 1962)”
- Implications for Empirical Expressive Music Performance Research - Oxford Scholarship - “ Inevitably, mixed methods involve techniques such as juxtaposing objective measurements of one variable (e.g. the degree of bodily movement according to an intended expressive intention) against observed qualitative data that may seems less justifiable within the more scientific framework of quantitative techniques, but which offer rich interpretation and inference.”
- @ Scientific American - “But there is a second auditory expressive behavior we humans carry out – our bodily movements themselves. Human movement has been conjectured to underlie music as far back as the Greeks. As a hypothesis this has the advantage that we have auditory systems capable of making sense of the sounds of people moving in our midst – an angry stomper approaching, a delicate lilter passing, and so on. Some of these movements trigger positive emotions – they conjure up images of pleasant activities – while others might be automatically associated with fear or anxiety.
heart rate
- Classical music by Mozart and Strauss could lower blood pressure and heart rate @ News Medical - “Classical music by Mozart and Strauss notably lowered blood pressure and heart rate, whereas no substantial effect was seen for the songs of ABBA. In the control group, resting in a supine position also resulted in blood pressure lowering, but the effect was far less pronounced than for exposure to the music of Mozart or Strauss. All musical genres resulted in notably lower cortisol concentrations. “
- Exploring the effect of the tempo of music on heart rate @ doppel - “Your brain and body are constantly talking to each other with each other. The physiological state of the body which is encoded in the heart, among other body organs, is relayed to the brain constantly, on every single heartbeat. Our feelings and mood are influenced by our heart rate.”
- MUSIC; And Its EFFECT ON HEART RATE by Anoushka Dev on Prezi
- Effect of Music on heart rate @ JR Science - “We speculate that slow music will lower the heart rate and bring the psychological sense in a state of low tension and stress while songs with fast beats and high pitches increased the rate of the heartbeat. The positive effect of slow music will be an apparent tool to reduce anxiety and stress in patients after a surgery and can be used as an adjuvant in their treatment.
- Music Can Make the Heart Beat Faster @ ABC News - “Their earlier studies found that music with quicker tempos had people breathing faster, with increased heart rate and blood pressure, while slower tempos produced opposite effects.”
- Most Relaxing Music Lowers Heart Rate And Blood Pressure; 'Scientifically Proven' To Aid Sleep @ Medical Daily
- Relationship Between Music and Heart Rate @ LIVESTRONG.COM - “A person's heart rate changes while listening to music, but whether the heart beats faster or slower depends on the tempo of the music. In the November 2009 issue of "Harvard Health Letter," studies performed at Massachusetts General Hospital and in medical facilities in Hong Kong show that people who listened to music for 20 to 30 minutes each day had lower blood pressure and a slowed heart rate compared with those who did not listen to music”
- music and the heart rate uploaded by Jade Hurdus
- Music structure determines heart rate variability of singers | Auditory Cognitive Neuroscience @ Frontiers - “One reason for this may be that singing demands a slower than normal respiration, which may in turn affect heart activity. Coupling of heart rate variability (HRV) to respiration is called Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA). This coupling has a subjective as well as a biologically soothing effect, and it is beneficial for cardiovascular function.”
- Effects of music during exercise on RPE, heart rate and the autonomic nervous system @ Research Gate - “Therefore, when jogging or walking at comparatively low exercise intensity, listening to a favorite piece of music might decrease the influence of stress caused by fatigue, thus increasing the ''comfort'' level of performing the exercise.”
- How does music effect your heart rate? @ Reference.com
- The effect of music on heart rate @ Journal of Emerging Investigators - “The results at the end of our experiment showed that 93% of subjects experienced a decrease in heart rate following the slow song and 100% of subjects experienced an increase in heart rate following the fast song. We concluded that there is, indeed, a relationship between music and heart rate.”
- Heart Beat: Music May Help Keep Your Cardiovascular System in Tune @ Scientific American - “These results, Bernardi says, indicate that music's effects go beyond a patient's head. "It is not only the emotion that creates the cardiovascular changes," he notes, "but this study suggests that also the opposite might be possible." He believes the boosts in mood—including those pleasurable "chills"—triggered by music might also be a side effect of a physiological reaction.”
- Does Listening to Music Affect Ones Heart Rate? @ SiOWfa15: Science in Our World: Certainty and Controversy - “To conclude, music can definitely affect one’s heart rate, but the musical genre is an important factor. One type of music may affect someone’s heart rate drastically, while another may have no affect. But through much more research, maybe one-day music could be used to replace some medications.“
- Does music affect our heart rate? @ Science Focus - “Foetuses can hear from the end of the second trimester (six months) and every baby is exposed to the sound of its mother’s heartbeat. When a pregnant mother is stressed her heartbeat rises and her baby may come to associate that sound with the stressed sensation. It’s possible that our reaction to music is a sort of empathic memory from that shared time.”
muscle tension
- The efficacy of music therapy protocols for decreasing pain, anxiety, and muscle tension levels during burn dressing changes: a prospective randomized crossover trial. @ PubFacts.com - “Music therapy was also associated with a decrease in anxiety and muscle tension levels during the dressing changes (P < .05) followed by a reduction in muscle tension levels after dressing changes (P < .025). “
- Surprising Effects Of Music @ Emedexpert - Pain relief.Reducing blood pressure/Medicine for the heart.Promotes Post-Stroke Recovery.Chronic headaches & migraine remedy.Music boosts immunity & more...
- A Dose of Music for Pain Relief @ BrainFacts.org - “In contrast, brain scans reveal that listening to pleasing music increases activity in parts of the brain's reward center. “Pleasant music triggers the release of the brain chemical dopamine,” explains Robert Zatorre, of McGill University, who studies emotion and music. This change “is strongly associated with other rewarding and motivating stimuli, such as food, sex, and certain addictive drugs,” Zatorre adds. Scientists believe that music’s ability to make you feel good may be one way it helps to alleviate pain.”
- Music Exploration @ Choices Recovery - “Music therapy group sessions may include any of the following to enhance group cooperation and boost non-verbal expression:• record a customized CD to encourage relaxation and reduce anxiety, stress, and fear.• improvisation on a variety of instruments which works to stimulate inner creativity.• discussions about certain lyrics and how they’re connected to addiction issues.• using song writing and composition to boost self confidence and esteem and express emotions.• practicing meditation which will ideally teach people necessary coping skills to help manage their anxiety, anger, and fear.”
Chords have moods
- Chopin, Bach used human speech ‘cues’ to express emotion in music @ ScienceDaily - “Bach used everyday speech "cues" to convey emotion in some of their most famous compositions. Their findings were recently published in Frontiers of Psychology: Cognition.Their research stemmed from an interest in human speech perception -- the notion that "happy speech" for humans tends to be higher in pitch and faster in timing, while "sad speech" is lower and slower.”
- Do Tempo And Pitch Modulation Elicit Emotional Responses In Music? @ Parker Tichko - “These researchers conclude that other intervals aside from the generic major / minor third (scale degree 1 and 3) might play a role in the perception of emotional value. Thus, this study is important as it implies that perhaps a more universal cognitive process, one that is not exclusive to the major / minor third interval, but rather a generalized neural correlate, might administer musical emotion.”
- Why do chords have different moods? @ Quora
- Music can elicit emotion in anyone, but there is a mathematical reason for why chords invoke certain feelings. Does that mean that human emotion is quantifiable? : askscience
Quick lessons about music
terms, voice types, notes,etc.
terms,notes,etc. CONTINUED....
Temporal dynamics of music and language
- Temporal dynamics of music and language - Wikipedia -”The primary auditory cortex is located on the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex. This region is important in music processing and plays an important role in determining the pitch and volume of a sound... The frontal cortex has been found to be involved in processing melodies and harmonies of music. For example, when a patient is asked to tap out a beat or try to reproduce a tone, this region is very active on fMRI and PET scans.[2] The cerebellum is the "mini" brain at the rear of the skull. Similar to the frontal cortex, brain imaging studies suggest that the cerebellum is involved in processing melodies and determining tempos. The medial prefrontal cortex along with the primary auditory cortex has also been implicated in tonality, or determining pitch and volume.”
- Music and the Brain @TDLC - “This research demonstrates that a computer can decode primal emotions and the brain can communicate these feelings through music, without even lifting a hand. “
- Temporal Dynamics and the Identification of Musical Key
- Temporal dynamics of musical emotions examined through intersubject synchrony of brain activity W Oxford Journals - “Our results reveal synchronous activations in left amygdala, left insula and right caudate nucleus that were associated with higher arousal, whereas positive valence ratings correlated with decreases in amygdala and caudate activity. “
- Auditory plasticity and development: Disentangling the temporal dynamics of complex representation | Channels - Contribute - McGill University - “Both speech and music perception rely on pitch transitions whose production is controlled over time. In everyday listening, the pitch and rhythm of speech and music blend together to create a seamless perception of pitch fluctuations organized in time. The organization of pitch in rhythm aids cognitive processing in both domains. An extensive body of research has shown that music training leads to brain plasticity such as enhanced perception and processing of pitch and rhythm, as well as spoken and written language. “
- Farbood, M. M., Marcus, G., & Poeppel, D. (2013). Temporal Dynamics and the Identification of Musical Key. - abstract.
SEMANTIC PRIMING EFFECT
- Musical semantics - Wikipedia - “A sentence such as Sissy sings a song disburdens the neural processing of semantically related words like music, whereas it does not alleviate processing of semantically unrelated words like carpet. This effect is known as the semantic priming effect; it refers to the highly consistent processing advantage seen for words that are preceded by a semantically related context.”
- Semantic Processing & the N400 Effect by Jamie Van Doren on Prezi
- CogBlog – A Cognitive Psychology Blog » Being able to sing along: Semantic priming and familiar songs - “In the tune primes: tune targets experiment, related primes and tunes were from the same song category. The data showed much faster response times to songs (participants had to determine if the song was real or not) when the prime and tune were related. This supports the spreading activation model, a model in which one thought can activate another thought based on their similarity to one another. “
- Contrast and Congreuence Effects in Affetive Priming of Words and Melodies @ Degruyter.com
- Frontiers | The Influence of Task-Irrelevant Music on Language Processing: Syntactic and Semantic Structures | Auditory Cognitive Neuroscience - “Our study tested the simultaneous processing of musical syntax with either linguistic syntax (Experiment 1) or semantics (Experiment 2) and the observed data pattern is in agreement with these previous findings.”
- Language influences music harmony perception: effects of shared syntactic integration resources beyond attention | Open Science
- Music, language and meaning: brain signatures of semantic processing - ProQuest
We are taught to be afraid since we observe it around us. We are taught to fear abandonment because we see others around us being abandoned. We are fearful to get close since we have been hurt too many times before. We feel as though we are nothing and worthless because we have been programmed to believe it through the media, our ex-es and random aholes in society. This is to show people that we are conditioned to fear others, we are conditioned to think we are worthless, we are conditioned to be cautious, so please understand and be gently with us.
This is also the case for eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia and disordered eating such as dieting. We are conditioned to think that thin is in, we are programmed to think that we can't be healthy unless we are thin, we are taught to only exercise and become physically fit if we have a weight loss goal, anything else is stupid and a waste of time (not true, everyone should exercise, not just thin people and not to lose weight)
Not putting this here to show you all how to "fix" yourself but because it shows how diet culture works to push eating disorders and self hatred, how people are conditioned to think they must change because of who they are, how people are depressed because of all the shnit and rudeness in the world, how psychiatry works to push pills and the idea we all have something wrong with us, and on a positive note... how eat disorder recovery programs work.
Not putting this here to show you all how to "fix" yourself but because it shows how diet culture works to push eating disorders and self hatred, how people are conditioned to think they must change because of who they are, how people are depressed because of all the shnit and rudeness in the world, how psychiatry works to push pills and the idea we all have something wrong with us, and on a positive note... how eat disorder recovery programs work.
schedule of reinforcement
- Schedules
- The “What?” of Schedules of Reinforcement - Behavior Analysts Tampa: ABA Therapy, Autism, Behavior Problems, ADHD/Learning Disabilities - In this blog we will cover the "What" of schedules of reinforcement. We will cover the When, Why, and How of schedules of reinforcement in upcoming blogs.
- Learning: Schedules of Reinforcement - YouTube - This episode covers four schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning (fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio) including th...
- Schedules of Reinforcement
- Learning Part 3 - Schedules of Reinforcement - YouTube - This episode covers four schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning (fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio) including th...
- Schedules of Reinforcement - Schedules of reinforcement influence how fast a behavior is acquired and the strength of the response. Which schedule is best for certain situations?
- Schedules of Reinforcement - Educate Autism - Schedules of reinforcement are protocols for teachers to follow when delivering reinforcement to students. We discuss both continuous schedules of reinforcement as well as intermittent schedules of reinforcement.
Priming
If you keep getting hurt you're going to look or those signs in people.Actions may trigger and possible maybe even certain words may trigger a response.
- Priming - RationalWiki - "Priming works on an implicit level and is involved in a number of cognitive biases such as confirmation bias and the availability heuristic."
- Priming- Priming acts to initiate desire by giving a small taster or otherwise start up the mental machine.
- Priming (psychology) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Priming is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus (i.e., perceptual pattern) influences the response to another stimulus.... Their original work showed that people were faster in deciding that a string of letters is a word when the word followed an associatively or semantically related word. For example, NURSE is recognized more quickly following DOCTOR than following BREAD"...
- Priming definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com - "...an individual who has just purchased a new car may now start to notice with more frequency other people driving her same make and model. This person has been primed to recognize more readily a car like hers because of the experience she has driving and owning one."
- What is Priming? A Psychological Look at Priming & Consumer Behavior - Priming is exposure to some thing that influences behavior later on, without that individual being aware of the guiding influence.
- The Priming Effect: Accessibility, Priming & Perceptual Salience - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com - The priming effect is an interesting cognitive process studied by social psychologists. We discuss the effect in this lesson, along with several...
- Definition of Priming | Chegg.com - "For instance, someone who has just watched a movie about horses is more likely to notice related stimuli, such as horse trailers and conversations about riding. That person would be "primed" for those stimuli. "
- Priming - Implicit Memory - Priming is the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus.
- Priming | Psychology Today - Priming is a nonconscious form of human memory concerned with perceptual identification of words and objects. It refers to activating particular representations or associations in memory just before carrying out an action or task. For example, a person who sees the word "yellow" will be slightly faster to recognize the word "banana." This happens because yellow and banana are closely associated in memory. Additionally, priming can also refer to a technique in psychology used to train a person's memory in both positive and negative ways. Priming can occur following perceptual, semantic, or conceptual stimulus repetition."
Semantic priming
- Semantic Priming | Cognition, Fifth Edition | Higher Education | Oxford University Press Canada - "The idea that when a word is activated, activation 'spreads' to related words is strongly supported by the results of 'semantic priming experiments' in which the speed of recognizing words is compared in conditions where words are preceded by related words versus conditions where words are preceded by unrelated words."
- Lexical Decision Tasks, Semantic Priming, and Reading - In this issue of PeePs, the featured studies explore the effects of semantic priming on reading.
- Semantic Priming - Explanation too short to put on here. Please visits the site.
- Mind Control through Semantic Priming - Unconscious Behavioral Guidance Systems - MU - YouTube
- What is SEMANTIC PRIMING? definition of SEMANTIC PRIMING (Psychology Dictionary) - Psychology Definition of SEMANTIC PRIMING: where we process stimuli better depending on what comes first. If a related word is first we process it better than if an unrelated word comes first.
Repetition priming
- Repetition priming - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia -"Repetition priming refers to improvements in a behavioural response when stimuli are repeatedly presented. The improvements can be measured in terms of accuracy or reaction time, and can occur when the repeated stimuli are either identical or similar to previous stimuli"
- Priming, response learning and repetition suppression - "This behavioural facilitation is usually accompanied by a reduction in neural response within specific cortical regions (repetition suppression, RS). Recent research has suggested that both behavioural priming and RS can be largely determined by previously learned stimulus–response associations. According to this view, a direct association forms between the stimulus presented and the response made to it."
- What is REPETITION PRIMING? definition of REPETITION PRIMING (Psychology Dictionary) - Psychology Definition of REPETITION PRIMING: Initial presentation of a stimulus changes the way in which a subject will react to that stimulus at a later date. Accesses implicit memory.
- Repetition priming affects guessing not familiarity | Behavioral and Brain Functions | Full Tex - "The data are consistent with the view that remembering and knowing do not correspond to confidence ratings; and suggest that contrary to earlier findings, recollection and familiarity do not differ in retrieval mechanisms. As such the effects of repetition priming on subjective reports of remembering should not be cited as evidence for the distinction between recollection and familiarity based memory processes."
Intrinsic motivation factors
- The Difference Between Intrinsic Motivation & Extrinsic Motivation | LIVESTRONG.COM- There are many theories about what motivates people. In actuality, you are motivated by both internal and external factors, as there is always a mixture of...
- Intrinsic Motivation in Psychology: Definition, Examples & Factors - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com- Intrinsic motivation refers to performing an action or behavior for the sake of enjoyment. Learn more about intrinsic motivation, how it differs...
- What Is Intrinsic Motivation?- Why do you do the things you do? If you are doing them for some internal reason, then psychologists would describe you as intrinsically motivated.
- 7 Factors that Promote Intrinsic Motivation - ]Are you feeling motivated today? Chances are you're reading this blog because you're feeling unmotivated to do whatever it is you are supposed to be doing today.We are confronted by motivation every day, whether it's within ourself, our friends and family, our colleagues, or business partners and customers.
- Intrinsic Motivation - Intrinsic motivation is when I am motivated by internal factors.
Extrinsic factors
- Extrinsic Motivation in the Workplace: Factors, Types & Examples - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com - Extrinsic motivation is an important concept for managers to understand. We will learn what it is, some of its key factors, and different types of...
- 2. Intrinsic/Extrinsic factors flashcards | Quizlet
- Extrinsic Motivation Factors | Chron.com - Most people have at some time been cajoled into doing something, and most have done things for a reward. What is involved in these situations is extrinsic motivation. Conventional psychological ...
- What Is Extrinsic Motivation? - Extrinsic motivation can have a powerful influence on behavior, but it can sometimes can actually reduce intrinsic motivation. Learn more
Little Albert
Watson didn't even fix what he had done. That's how people are. They just mess you up and can't even be bothered to help repair the damage they cause and then WE are the ones blamed for our fear of abandonment,etc.
- - The Little Albert Experiment (A Closer Look) - "The Little Albert experiment was a famous psychology experiment conducted by behaviorist John B. Watson. ....The next time Albert was exposed to the rat, Watson made a loud noise by hitting a metal pipe with a hammer. Naturally, the child began to cry after hearing the loud noise. After repeatedly pairing the white rat with the loud noise, Albert began to cry simply after seeing the rat."
- Little Albert experiment - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "In further experiments, Little Albert seemed to generalize his response to the white rat. He became distressed at the sight of several other furry objects, such as a rabbit, a furry dog, and a seal-skin coat, and even a Santa Claus mask with white cotton balls in the beard. However, this stimulus generalization did not extend to everything with hair.[4] It should be noted that Watson's experiment had many failings by modern standards. For example, a single subject and no control subjects. Most importantly, such an experiment would never be allowed under current law and regulations, as it clearly subjected the infant to severe stress and potential long-term psychological damage."
- The Little Albert Experiment: The Perverse 1920 Study That Made a Baby Afraid of Santa Claus & Bunnies | Open Culture -"Enter 9-month old Albert B., AKA Little Albert. At the beginning of the experiment, Albert was presented with a white rat, a dog, a white rabbit, and a mask of Santa Claus among other things. The lad was unafraid of everything and was, in fact, really taken with the rat. Then every time the baby touched the animals, scientists struck a metal bar behind him, creating a startlingly loud bang. The sound freaked out the child and soon, like Pavlov’s dogs, Little Albert grew terrified of the rat and the mask of Santa and even a fur coat. The particularly messed up thing about the experiment was that Watson didn’t even both to reverse the psychological trauma he inflicted." That's how people are. They just mess you up and can't even be bothered to help repair the damage they cause and then WE are the ones blamed for our fear of abandonment,etc.
- Classics in the History of Psychology -- Watson & Rayner (1920) - "The Freudians twenty years from now, unless their hypotheses change, when they come to analyze Albert's fear of a seal skin coat - assuming that he comes to analysis at that age - will probably tease from him the recital of a dream which upon their analysis will show that Albert at three years of age attempted to play with the pubic hair of the mother and was scolded violently for it. (We are by no means denying that this might in some other case condition it). If the analyst has sufficiently prepared Albert to accept such a dream when found as an explanation of his avoiding tendencies, and if the analyst has the authority and personality to put it over, Albert may be fully convinced that the dream was a true revealer of the factors which brought about the fear."
- The Little Albert Experiment - YouTube
- John Watson - Little Albert - YouTube
- Mystery solved: We now know what happened to Little Albert - Extra information.
- Little Albert Experiment- The Little Albert Experience demonstrated that classical conditioning works in humans as well as animals.
- Terrifying Fluffy Bunnies and The Little Albert Experiment
- Little Albert Experiment: The Most Distorted Study Ever - Learn about the scope of conditioning and real effects for the Watson's Little Albert experiment
Aversives / unpleasant stimuli
- Wikipedia - “In psychology, aversives are unpleasant stimuli that induce changes in behavior through punishment; by applying an aversive immediately following a behavior, the likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future is reduced. Aversives can vary from being slightly unpleasant or irritating (such as a disliked color) to physically damaging. It is not the level of unpleasantness, but rather the effectiveness the unpleasant event has on changing behavior that defines the aversive.”
- Conditioned aversive stimuli - aversive Control - Stimulus, Buzzer, Shock, and Event @ JRank Articles - An animal experiment illustrates the basic process of the development of a conditioned aversive stimulus. A rat is trained to press a lever Because this behavior is terminated an electric shock and leaves the rat free of electric shock for a period of time. The buzzer can now precede the electric shock, and any lever press in the presence of the buzzer now terminates the buzzer and leaves the rat free of aversive control for a period of time. Under Appropriate conditions, the rat will soon terminate the buzzer Whenever it appears and will rarely be exposed to the electric shock. Pressing the lever is now reinforced by the termination of the buzzer roomates is reinforcing Because It has preceded the electric shock in the past history of the rat. Since the termination of the buzzer is reinforcing Because it is Followed occasionally with shock, the process is Potentially unstable."
- @Science of Behavior - "A stimulus whose termination increases the frequency of the performance is called an aversive stimulus. Such an increase in frequency is called negative reinforcement. An aversive stimulus which increases the frequency of a performance by terminating it is called a negative reinforcer. An aversive stimulus such as an electric shock or a loud noise may influence behavior in different ways, depending on its relation to the animal's performance. It may decrease the frequency of, the performance it follows (punishment), it may elicit reflexes (unconditioned stimulus), or it may alter the frequency of many operant performances in the ongoing repertoire (emotion or anxiety)."
- What is an Aversive Stimulus?@ Psychology Dictionary - “refers to any stimulus or occurrence that evokes avoidance behavior or escape behavior in an individual.“
- Aversive Control - Stimulus, Reinforcement, Positive, Stimuli, Reinforced, and Child @ JRank Articles - “An aversive stimulus can be generally defined as one which maintains some behavior of an organism which reduces or removes the aversive stimulus. This is in contrast to positive reinforcement where the production of the stimulus is the reinforcing event. ....The most prevalent aversive stimuli in human behavior, however, are of another sort, deriving their aversive properties from the discontinuation or withdrawal of positive reinforcement. Examples of this kind of control in human behavior include fines or incarceration by governmental agencies, disapproval or criticism by individuals, ostracism, anger, dismissal from employment, or nonresponsiveness in social interactions. All of these situations function as aversive events because they are all occasions on which significant elements of an individual's repertoire will not produce their characteristic reinforcements. The withdrawal of money, as in a fine, represents, behaviorally, a change in the individual's environment in which behaviors which may normally be reinforced by spending the money can no longer be reinforced. Incarceration is an extreme form of aversive control because it prevents by physical restraint the reinforcement of nearly all of the significant and potentially strongly reinforced elements in an individual's repertoire. The child who is sent to his room cannot play with toys, take food from the refrigerator, or run outside with his friends“
Punishment (psychology)
- @ Wikipedia - "In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings that occurs after a given behavior or response which reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the animal, that is punished. Whether a change is or is not punishing is only known by its effect on the rate of the behavior, not by any "hostile" or aversive features of the change. For example, painful stimulation which would serve as a punisher in many cases serves to reinforce some behaviors of the masochist."
- What Is Punishment? @ Very Well - "Punishment is often mistakenly confused with negative reinforcement. Remember, reinforcement always increases the chances that a behavior will occur and punishment always decreases the chances that a behavior will occur."
- Punishment in Chapter 05: Conditioning | from Psychology: An Introduction by Russ Dewey "Punishment occurs when a stimulus is applied and has the effect of making a behavior less frequent. Sometimes this is called positive punishment. "Positive" in this context means a stimulus is added. However, few psychologists use the word "positive" when discussing punishment. This would only make beginning students more confused! When you see the word punishment by itself, this means an aversive stimulus is applied .
- Punishment - Unwanted, Negative, Effective, and Psychologists @ JRank Articles - "Research studies have found that punishment is effective in suppressing or eliminating unwanted behavior. But in order for punishment to be effective it must happen immediately after the behavior, be severe, and occur every time the behavior occurs. Detractors of the use of punishment have pointed out that, outside the laboratory setting, it is almost impossible to consistently administer punishment in this manner."
Positive Punishment
- Alley Dog - “Therefore a "positive" punishment refers to an active response (like an electrical shock) whereas a "negative" punishment would be withholding something from the organism...”
- @ Positive Psychology - “Positive punishment can be defined as “presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future.””
- @ Very Well - “Examples of Positive Punishment:You wear your favorite baseball cap to class but are reprimanded by your instructor for violating your school's dress code.Because you're late to work one morning, you drive over the speed limit through a school zone. As a result, you get pulled over by a police officer and receive a ticket.Your cell phone rings in the middle of a class lecture, and you are scolded by your teacher for not turning your phone off before class.”
- The Difference Between Positive and Negative Punishment @ North Shore Pediatric Therapy - “Positive punishment works by presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future.”
Negative Punishment
- The Difference Between Positive and Negative Punishment @ North Shore Pediatric Therapy -“Negative punishment happens when a certain desired stimulus/item is removed after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in the behavior happening less often in the future.
- @ Alley Dog - “If it motivates you to study more it is negative reinforcement (i.e., it increases the behavior of studying). However, if you feel that studying is actually hurting your performance (due to, for example, test anxiety) you will perceive that failing the test was due to studying too hard. Next time, you will not study (i.e., decrease your behavior) so that you will not be punished for it. “
- @ Very Well - “In behavioral psychology, the goal of punishment is to decrease the behavior that precedes it. In the case of negative punishment, it involves taking something good or desirable away to reduce the occurrence of a particular behavior.”
- @ Alley Dog - “Negative Punishment refers to the removal of a reinforcer (a desirable stimulus or opportunity) in response to an unwanted behavior, in order to decrease the probability of that behavior occurring again.”
- @ Intro Psych - “Response cost or negative punishment is another way to make behavior less frequent. It is therefore a form of punishment. It occurs when a stimulus is taken away as a consequence of behavior and the effect is to reduce the frequency of the behavior. The word "negative" in "negative punishment" comes from the fact that a stimulus is removed.”
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS
- @ Wikipedia - “”Functional analysis in behavioral psychology is the application of the laws of operant conditioning to establish the relationships between stimuli and responses. To establish the function of a behavior, one typically examines the "four-term contingency": first by identifying the motivating operations (EO or AO), then identifying the antecedent or trigger of the behavior, identifying the behavior itself as it has been operationalized, and identifying the consequence of the behavior which continues to maintain it.Functional assessment in behavior analysis employs principles derived from the natural science of behavior analysis to determine the "reason", purpose, or motivation for a behavior.”
- Functional Analysis @ ClinPsy.org.uk - Attention.Escape/Avoidance.Self Stimulation.Tangible Rewards
- Functional Behavioral Assessment and Functional Analysis @ AHRC New York City Schools -“The rationale behind conducting an FBA is that all behavior occurs within a specific environmental context and that all behavior serves an identifiable purpose. Under operant conditioning principles, individuals “learn” to engage in certain behaviors in order to fulfill a particular need. “
- Functional Analysis @ Penta.Ufrgs.br - ”In the first stage, the to-be-explained function is defined. In the second stage, analysis is performed. The to-be-explained function is decomposed into an organized set of simpler functions. This analysis can proceed recursively by decomposing some (or all) of the subfunctions into sub-subfunctions. In the third stage, analysis is stopped by subsuming the bottom level of functions. This means that the operation of each of these operation is explained by appealing to natural laws (e.g., mechanical or biological principles)”
Autoshaping
- Autoshaping @ WIkipedia - "Autoshaping (sometimes called sign tracking) is any of a variety of experimental procedures used to study classical conditioning. In autoshaping, in contrast to shaping, the reward comes irrespective of the behavior of the animal. In its simplest form, autoshaping is very similar to Pavlov's salivary conditioning procedure using dogs"
- Auto-shaping of the pigeon's key-peck
- Autoshaping - Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology - Meador - Wiley Online Library
- Behavior patterns in pigeons during autoshaping with an incremental conditioned stimulus - Springer
- https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/jcm/www/psy514/Chapter03a.Respondent-behavior-basic/autoshaping.asc
- Autoshaping
- AUTOSHAPING
Learned helplessness
Learned Helplessness (What It Is and Why It Happens) - Learned helplessness happens when people or animals become conditioned to believed that a situation is unchangeable or inescapable. Learned helplessness - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Learned Helplessness – You Are Not So Smart - The Misconception: If you are in a bad situation, you will do whatever you can do to escape it. The Truth: If you feel like you aren't in control of your destiny, you will give up and accept whatever situation you are in. In 1965, a scientist named Martin Seligman started shocking dogs. He was… Meet the Psychologists Who Helped the CIA Torture - Two psychologists who knew nothing about Al Qaeda ended up playing a huge role in designing the CIA's torture-friendly interrogation program. ‘Learned Helplessness’ & Torture: An Exchange by Martin Seligman | The New York Review of Books Trying to Cure Depression, but Inspiring Torture - The New Yorker - Does learned helplessness make someone more likely to tell the truth and give up important information that had previously remained hidden? Cognitive Theories of Major Depression – Seligman - In early 1965, psychologist Martin Seligman and his colleagues" accidentally" discovered an unexpected phenomenon related to human depression while st Learned Helplessness — Out of the FOG
Opponent-process theory
- Richard Solomon developed a motivational theory based on opponent processes. Basically he states that every process that has an affective balance, (i.e. is pleasant or unpleasant), is followed by a secondary, "opponent process". This opponent process sets in after the primary process is quieted. With repeated exposure, the primary process becomes weaker while the opponent process is strengthened.The most important contribution is Solomon's findings on work motivation and addictive behavior, though it does not fit the "economist's standard model"[clarification needed], and how there are growing suspicions that addiction is a much broader phenomenon than first believed. According to opponent-process theory, drug addiction is the result of an emotional pairing of pleasure and the emotional symptoms associated with withdrawal. At the beginning of drug or any substance use, there are high levels of pleasure and low levels of withdrawal. Over time, however, as the levels of pleasure from using the drug decrease, the levels of withdrawal symptoms increase, thus providing motivation to keep using the drug despite a lack of pleasure from it." - Wikipedia
- Opponent-Process Theory @ Changing Minds - “We have pairs of emotions that act in opposing pairs, such as happiness and sadness, fear and relief, pleasure and pain. When one of these is experienced, the other is temporarily suppressed. This opposite emotion, however, is likely to re-emerge strongly and may curtail or interact with the initial emotion.Thus activating one emotion also activates its opposite and they interact as a linked pair.”
- @ Alley Dog - “The theory also postulates that repeated exposure to the stimulus will cause less of an initial reaction and a stronger opposing reaction. “
- The opponent-process theory of emotion / Getting Stronger - “ It provides a framework that has been used to explain behaviors and emotional experiences in areas as diverse as addiction, thrill-seeking, love, job satisfaction, and cravings for food or exercise. I believe it can also explain the psychological benefits of cold showers” Has ton of awesome information about the opponent-process theory of emotion. Check this page out.
- Opponent-Process Theory @ MHHE - “”The opponent-process theory states that when one emotion is experienced, the other is suppressed. For example, if you are frightened by a mean dog, the emotion of fear is expressed and relief is suppressed. If the fear-causing stimulus continues to be present, after a while the fear decreases and the relief intensifies.”
- Opponent Process Theory uploaded by Parker Bourassa
- Opponent Process Theory in Social Psychology @ iResearchNet - “According to this theory, a primary a-process— directly activated by an emotional event—is followed by an opponent process, the secondary b-process, which gives rise to the opposite emotional state. In the first few exposures to an emotion-eliciting event, such an opponent process can act to return an organism to a state of emotional homeostasis or neutrality following an intensely emotional episode. After repeated exposures, however, the State A response weakens and the state B response strengthens...”
Counterconditioning
- Counter Conditioning: a Visual Explanation - YouTube- Also covered is systematic desensitization and aversive counter conditioning for comparison.
- Counterconditioning Therapy - Creating an Opposite Reaction
- Overcoming Social Phobias in Pets: Desensitization and Counterconditioning
- Counterconditioning definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com
- Counter conditioning and desensitization | Animal Humane Society- Counter conditioning and desensitization These two techniques are often used to change unwanted behavior in dogs and cats. Just as the term implies, counter conditioning means conditioning (training) an animal to display a behavior that is counter to (mutually exclusive of) an unacceptable behavior in response to a particular stimulus.
- Counterconditioning - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shaping
- Shaping (psychology) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Shaping is a conditioning paradigm used primarily in the experimental analysis of behavior. The method used is differential reinforcement of successive approximations. It was introduced by B. F. Skinner with pigeons and extended to dogs, dolphins, humans and other species. In shaping, the form of an existing response is gradually changed across successive trials towards a desired target behavior by rewarding exact segments of behavior. Skinner's explanation of shaping was this:"
- Shaping definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com
- Shaping - Operant Conditioning, Rewarded, and Speech - JRank Articles
- Two Examples of Shaping Responses
Classical conditioning
- Classical conditioning - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Classical Conditioning: How It Works With Examples
- Classical Conditioning | Simply Psychology
- Classical And Operant Conditioning In Psychology 101 At AllPsych Online | AllPsych
- Classical Conditioning - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- SparkNotes: Learning and Conditioning: Classical Conditioning
- Classical Conditioning
- Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) - Learning Theories
- Educational Psychology Interactive: Classical Conditioning
- Testing 1,2,3: How children learn through repetitive behavior | Parenting Counts
- Classical Conditioning
- Repetitive Learning
- Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov - YouTube
- Classical Conditioning [cc] - YouTube
- Classical Conditioning at BGSU - YouTube
- How to Train a Brain - Crash Course Psychology #11 - YouTube
- Classically Conditioning a 3 year old - YouTube
- The difference between classical and operant conditioning - Peggy Andover - YouTube
- milgram.pdf - Google Drive
Stimulus Generalization
- Stimulus Generalization - "Definition: In conditioning, stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a child has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, it will exhibit fear of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus such as a white toy rat.In the classic Little Albert experiment, researchers John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned a little boy to fear a white rat.The researchers observed that the boy experienced stimulus generalization by showing fear in response to similar stimuli including a dog, a rabbit, a fur coat, a white Santa Claus beard and even Watson's own hair.Stimulus generalization also explains why the fear of a certain object often affects many similar objects. A person who is afraid of spiders generally won't be afraid of just one type of spider. Instead, this fear will apply to all types and sizes of spiders. The individual might even be afraid of toy spiders and pictures of spiders as well."
- Stimulus Generalization: Definition & Examples - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- Psychlopedia - stimulus generalization
- Stimulus Generalization definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com
- Stimulus Generalization
- Stimulus-generalization | Define Stimulus-generalization at Dictionary.com
- Stimulus generalization - definition of stimulus generalization by The Free Dictionary
Stimulus Discrimination
- "In psychology, discrimination learning is the process by which animals or people learn to respond differently to different stimuli." - Wikipedia
- discrimination | psychology | Britannica.com
- Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction - Psych Exam Review
- Discrimination | in Chapter 05: Conditioning | from Psychology: An Introduction by Russ Dewey
- Consumer Behaviour - Stimulus Generalisation Vs. Stimulus Discriminat…
- Generalization and Discrimination - YouTube
- Discriminative Stimulus and Stimulus Delta - Educate Autism
- Stimulus Discrimination definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com
- Psychlopedia - Stimulus Discrimination
- Section 4-13: Stimulus Generalization & Discrimination | PSY 101 - Introduction to Psychology by Jeffry Ricker, Ph.D.
- stimulus discrimination – Dictionary definition of stimulus discrimination | Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary
- What is stimulus discrimination in psychology?
Reinforcement - Negative & Positive reinforcement
Kinda sounds like abuse in certain situations, but that is a good example of how society is very abusive to people who do not act or look how they want.
Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Reinforcement
- What Is Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning? @ Very Well - “Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur. Note that reinforcement is defined by the effect that it has on behavior—it increases or strengthens the behavior.”
- Why do reinforcers reinforce? Question @ Rational Skepticism
- Principles of Reinforcement @ Psychological Services of Pendleton - “Reinforcement is not so much a thing as it is relationship between a behavior and an event that follows it. Behaviors often increase when closely followed by certain events.”
- @ Wikipedia - “In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a consequence that will strengthen an organism's future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus.
- Reinforcement Theory - PSYCH 484: Work Attitudes and Job Motivation @ Confluence - “Reinforcement theory has been used in many areas of study to include animal training, raising children, and motivating employees in the workplace. Reinforcement theories focus on observable behavior rather than needs theories that focus on personal states. Reinforcement theory is a form of operant conditioning and focuses on the environmental factors that contribute to shaping behavior. Simply put, reinforcement theory claims that stimuli are used to shape behaviors. “
- @ Vocabulary - “Reinforcement is a way to learn and remember things, like a student who repeats the facts he has studied for a test over and over, or the ways we praise children when they share their toys or say "please" and "thank you" — reinforcement of the good manners we want them to use.”
Negative Reinforcement
- 10 Examples of Negative Reinforcement - Educate Autism
- Negative Reinforcement - Educate Autism - "A good way to remember the meaning of the “negative” in negative reinforcement is to think of it in relation to mathematics. When you see a negative symbol in math then it means subtraction.When you see the term negative used with reinforcement then think of something being subtracted."
- Negative Reinforcement - Operant Conditioning - "Learn more by looking at the following examples:Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather on sunscreen (the behavior) to avoid getting sunburned (removal of the aversive stimulus).You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen (the behavior) to avoid getting into a fight with your roommate (removal of the aversive stimulus). On Monday morning, you leave the house early (the behavior) to avoid getting stuck in traffic and being late for class (removal of an aversive stimulus). At dinner time, a child pouts and refuses to each the vegetables on her plate. Her parents quickly take the offending veggies away. Since the behavior (pouting) led to the removal of the aversive stimulus (the veggies), this is an example of negative reinforcement."
- The Difference Between Positive and Negative Reinforcement @ North Shore Pediatric Therapy - "Negative reinforcement should not be thought of as a punishment procedure. With negative reinforcement, you are increasing a behavior, whereas with punishment, you are decreasing a behavior."
- Negative Reinforcement in Dog Training - "Negative reinforcement means applying an aversive (something unpleasant), then removing it when the dog does the desired behavior. It can also mean withholding the delivery of an aversive to reward the dog for performing correctly. The dog is rewarded by escaping or avoiding the aversive. Reinforcement defines the result. Reinforcement means the behavior is likely to occur again or increase in frequency. Negative defines the action. Negative means to subtract or remove something. Just negative numbers in mathematics (my apologies to the math-averse)."
- Negative Reinforcement definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com - "For example, your dog can avoid being spanked when it sits in response to your command. If the dog has been getting spanked, not getting spanked is rewarding (removal of unpleasant stimulus) so the frequency of the behavior will increase. "
- Negative Reinforcement: Examples & Definition - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.co
- Positive Reinforcement - Educate Autism- "The term “positive” is used in conjunction with reinforcement to denote a specific form of reinforcement. It does not mean something “good” but instead the term positive relates more to the mathematical term of “adding” or “addition”.This is because positive reinforcement is the addition of something as a result of a behaviour after you have engaged in this behaviour. Before you engaged in the behaviour, what you wanted was not present but after you engaged in the behaviour what you wanted is present."
- Positive Reinforcement For Kids - "The fact that it does not use pain, punishment, intimidation, yelling, degradation, humiliation, shame, guilt or other things that can hurt the child, their self-esteem, emotional growth, well-being ...."
- The Difference between Positive/Negative Reinforcement and Positive/Negative Punishment - Behavior Analysts Tampa: ABA Therapy, Autism, Behavior Problems, ADHD/Learning Disabilities - "Positive reinforcement works by presenting a motivating/reinforcing stimulus to the person after the desired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior more likely to happen in the future."
- Positive Reinforcement | Victoria Stilwell Positively -
- How to Understand Positive Reinforcement: 8 Steps - "A consequence is presented dependent on behavior. The behavior becomes more likely to occur. The behavior becomes more likely to occur because and only because the consequence is presented dependent on the behavior.""
- Positive Reinforcement - Operant Conditioning - "Consider the following examples: After you execute a turn during a skiing lesson, your instructor shouts out, "Great job!" At work, you exceed this month's sales quota, so your boss gives you a bonus. For your psychology class, you watch a video about the human brain and write a paper about what you learned. Your instructor gives you 20 extra credit points for your work."
conditioning attitudes
- Implicit Attitude Formation Through Classical Conditioning
- Attitudes: How They Form, Change, & Shape Behavior - "Psychologists define attitudes as a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. This can include evaluations of people, issues, objects, or events. Such evaluations are often positive or negative, but they can also be uncertain at times. For example, you might have mixed feelings about a particular person or issue.Researchers also suggest that there are several different components that make up attitudes. The components of attitudes are sometimes referred to as CAB or the ABC's of attitude. Cognitive Component: Your thoughts and beliefs about the subject. Affective Component: How the object, person, issue or event makes you feel. Behavioral Component: How the attitude influences your behavior."
- Attitude Formation | Lynn Munoz - "According to Fazio and Olson (Hogg & Cooper, 2007), attitudes are formed through three processes: affect, cognition and behavior. This concept is a departure from earlier authors’ views of attitude formation. For instance, the tripartite (three-component) model of attitudes posited that each attitude included a component from each realm (affect, cognition, and behavior).Affective Attitude Formation. Affect refers to emotion. Therefore, an attitude formed through affect has a strong emotional component. Processes involved in affective attitude formation are mere exposure, classical conditioning, operant (instrumental) conditioning (Hogg & Cooper, 2007, Fiske, 2010, Crisp & Turner, 2010), modeling and observational learning (Fiske, 2010)."
- Subliminal Conditioning of Attitudes - "Most of the literature on attitude formation assumes that attitudes are the products of deductive integration of an individual's beliefs about an object's attributes. Two studies demonstrate that attitudes can develop without deduction from such beliefs and, indeed, without individuals' being aware of the antecedents of those attitudes. Subjects viewed nine slides of a target person going about normal daily activities; immediately preceding the presentation of each photograph was a subliminal exposure of an affect-arousing photograph. Half the subjects in each study were subliminally exposed to positive-affect-arousing photos and half to negative-affect-arousing photos. The subliminal photographs affected attitudes toward the target person and shaped beliefs about the target person's personality traits. Presumably because relevant objective data were available, the subliminal photographs apparently had less impact on judgments of the target person's physical attractiveness. These findings demonstrate conditioning of attitudes without awareness of their antecedents."
- Attitudes - "1. Definition. Attitude = a favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone, exhibited in ones beliefs, feelings, or intended behavior (Myers, p. 36). It is a social orientation - an underlying inclination to respond to something either favorably or unfavorably. 2. Components of attitudes. a. Cognitive - our thoughts, beliefs, and ideas about something. When a human being is the object of an attitude, the cognitive component is frequently a stereotype, e.g. "welfare recipients are lazy" b. Affective - feelings or emotions that something evokes. e.g. fear, sympathy, hate. May dislike welfare recipients. c. Conative, or behavioral - tendency or disposition to act in certain ways toward something. Might want to keep welfare recipients out of our neighborhood. Emphasis is on the tendency to act, not the actual acting; what we intend and what we do may be quite different. "
- Conditioning, Beliefs and Basic Attitudes @ Wanter Fall - "It would include things like factual memory and cognitive development – which probably do have indirect influences on personality and behaviour. However, I think beliefs, stored emotions and attitudes are the main things that keep past mental influences alive over time. Therefore, a more practical definition of conditioning as it affects the human mind might be the residual effects of all past influences on a person's beliefs, stored emotions, attitudes and consequent reactions. I am sure that definition is not perfect, either, but I think it will do for our current purpose."
- SparkNotes: Social Psychology: Attitudes - "Attitudes are evaluations people make about objects, ideas, events, or other people. Attitudes can be positive or negative. Explicit attitudes are conscious beliefs that can guide decisions and behavior. Implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs that can still influence decisions and behavior. Attitudes can include up to three components: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral."
- @ Alley Dog - "Explicit attitudes are the conscious and chosen attitudes that a person displays while interacting with the world. These are the behaviors and beliefs that others see. "
- Explicit Attitudes @ Encyclopedia of Psychology - "A person’s conscious views toward people, objects, or concepts. That is, the person is aware of the feelings he or she holds in a certain context."
- Implicit Attitudes Predict Impulsive Behavior @ Psychology Today - "An implicit attitude is defined as a memory that serves as a connecting link between an object (like a product) and feelings or thoughts toward that object. For example, we might have a pleasant memory of an afternoon at the park in which we happened to use some product. The pleasant feelings associated with the memory of the park could rub off on the product, leading us to form favorable associations with it. Those associations could be automatically activated when we subsequently encountered the product, leading to a kind of favorable gut reaction to it. These attitudes are referred to as implicit because they're not really overtly expressed like the attitudes we often report on surveys."
- What are implicit attitudes ? uploaded by B2Bwhiteboard - "Implicit attitudes are thought and feelings that occur outside a persons conscious awareness or control towards a product. For example, a subject might have a favourable attitude towards a celebrity, which positively influences their response to advertising utilising the celebrities voice. However, it works in reverse if the subject was unable to identify the celebrity behind the voice."
- Awareness of Implicit Attitudes @ NCBI - "Research on implicit attitudes has raised questions about how well people know their own attitudes. Most research on this question has focused on the correspondence between measures of implicit attitudes and measures of explicit attitudes, with low correspondence interpreted as showing that people have little awareness of their implicit attitudes. We took a different approach and directly asked participants to predict their results on upcoming IAT measures of implicit attitudes toward five different social groups. We found that participants were surprisingly accurate in their predictions. Across four studies, predictions were accurate regardless of whether implicit attitudes were described as true attitudes or culturally learned associations (Studies 1 and 2), regardless of whether predictions were made as specific response patterns (Study 1) or as conceptual responses (Studies 2–4), and regardless of how much experience or explanation participants received before making their predictions (Study 4). Study 3 further suggested that participants’ predictions reflected unique insight into their own implicit responses, beyond intuitions about how people in general might respond. Prediction accuracy occurred despite generally low correspondence between implicit and explicit measures of attitudes, as found in prior research. All together, the research findings cast doubt on the belief that attitudes or evaluations measured by the IAT necessarily reflect unconscious attitudes."
- Understanding Implicit Bias @ Kinwan Institute - "Implicit biases are pervasive. Everyone possesses them, even people with avowed commitments to impartiality such as judges.Implicit and explicit biases are related but distinct mental constructs. They are not mutually exclusive and may even reinforce each other.The implicit associations we hold do not necessarily align with our declared beliefs or even reflect stances we would explicitly endorse.We generally tend to hold implicit biases that favor our own ingroup, though research has shown that we can still hold implicit biases against our ingroup.Implicit biases are malleable. Our brains are incredibly complex, and the implicit associations that we have formed can be gradually unlearned through a variety of debiasing techniques."
- @ Wikipedia - "Implicit attitudes are evaluations that occur without conscious awareness towards an attitude object or the self. These evaluations are generally either favorable or unfavorable. They come about from various influences in the individual experience.The commonly used definition of implicit attitude within cognitive and social psychology comes from Anthony Greenwald and Mahzarin Banaji's template for definitions of terms related to implicit cognition (see also implicit stereotype and implicit self-esteem for usage of this template): "Implicit attitudes are introspectively unidentified (or inaccurately identified) traces of past experience that mediate favorable or unfavorable feeling, thought, or action toward social objects". These thoughts, feelings or actions have an influence on behavior that the individual may not be aware of."
- Implicit Attitude Formation Through Classical Conditioning @ Sage Pub - "We sought to demonstrate that attitudes can develop through implicit covariation detection in a new classical conditioning paradigm. In two experiments purportedly about surveillance and vigilance, participants viewed several hundred randomly presented words and images interspersed with critical pairings of valenced unconditioned stimuli (USs) with novel conditioned stimuli (CSs). Attitudes toward the novel objects were influenced by the paired USs: In a surprise evaluation task, the CS paired with positive items was evaluated more positively than the CS paired with negative items. This attitudinal conditioning effect was found using both an explicit measure (Experiments 1 and 2) and an implicit measure (Experiment 2). In a covariation estimation task involving the stimuli presented in the conditioning procedure, participants displayed no explicit memory for the pairings."
- Are “implicit” attitudes unconscious? @ Science Direct - "A widespread assumption in recent research on attitudes is that self-reported (explicit) evaluations reflect conscious attitudes, whereas indirectly assessed (implicit) evaluations reflect unconscious attitudes. The present article reviews the available evidence regarding unconscious features of indirectly assessed “implicit” attitudes. Distinguishing between three different aspects of attitudes, we conclude that (a) people sometimes lack conscious awareness of the origin of their attitudes, but that lack of source awareness is not a distinguishing feature of indirectly assessed versus self-reported attitudes, (b) there is no evidence that people lack conscious awareness of indirectly assessed attitudes per se, and (c) there is evidence showing that, under some conditions, indirectly assessed (but not self-reported) attitudes influence other psychological processes outside of conscious awareness. Implications for the concept of “implicit attitudes” are discussed."
extinction
- Extinction (operant extinction) definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com - "Extinction is from conditioning and refers to the reduction of some response that the organism currently or previously produced. In classical conditioning this results from the unconditioned stimulus NOT occurring after the conditioned stimulus is presented over time. In operant conditioning it results from some response by the organism no longer being reinforced (for example, you keep getting your dog to sit on command, but you stop giving it a treat or any other type of reinforcement. Over time, the dog may not sit every time you give the command)."
- Classical conditioning: Generalization," discrimination, extinction, "
- Classical Conditioning @ Web. MST - "Extinction refers to the fact, that, if the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are not paired for a given number of trials an organism will stop exhibiting the conditioned response. For example, the student mentioned above will, perhaps, some day come to really like Hawaiian shirts again. "
- What Is Extinction in Psychology? @ Very Well - "Imagine that you ate some ice cream right before getting sick. As a result, you developed a taste aversion to ice cream and avoided eating it, even thought it was formerly one of your favorite foods."
- What is Extinction in Conditioning? - Definition & Explanation - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- Extinction (psychology) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Extinction is observed in both operantly conditioned and classically conditioned behavior. When operant behavior that has been previously reinforced no longer produces reinforcing consequences the behavior gradually stops occurring.[1] In classical conditioning, when a conditioned stimulus is presented alone, so that it no longer predicts the coming of the unconditioned stimulus, conditioned responding gradually stops. For example, after Pavlov's dog was conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, it eventually stopped salivating to the bell after the bell had been sounded repeatedly but no food came. Many anxiety disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder are believed to reflect, at least in part, a failure to extinguish conditioned fear."
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
- Spontaneous Recovery
- Spontaneous Recovery in Psychology: Definition & Examples - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- Psychlopedia - spontaneous recovery
- Extinction & Spontaneous recovery - Classical Conditioning - YouTube
- Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery | in Chapter 05: Conditioning | from Psychology: An Introduction by Russ Dewey
- Spontaneous Recovery After Extinction of the Conditioned Proboscis Extension Response in the Honeybee
- Examples of Spontaneous Recovery
- Spontaneous Recovery definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com - "Spontaneous recovery is a term associated with learning and conditioning. Specifically, spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a response (a Conditioned Response; CR) that had been extinguished. The recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure to the Conditioned Stimulus (CS). It is called spontaneous because the response seems to reappear out of nowhere. Let's look at an example. Let's say I condition (teach/train) a rat to press a lever whenever I ring a bell. Then I teach the rat to press the lever when I flash a light and not when I ring the bell. Once I've accomplished this, we can say that the first conditioned response (pressing the lever when I ring the bell) has been extinguished. But then one day, the rat starts to press the lever when I ring the bell and not when I flash the light. In this situation, there was spontaneous recovery of the response that was previously extinguished."
- Spontaneous recovery - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- What Is Spontaneous Recovery in Psychology?
Applied Behavior Analysis
- I Love ABA! (dot) com
- What Is Applied Behavior Analysis
- Autism Therapies: ABA, RDI, and Sensory Therapies - WebMD explains three effective autism therapies: ABA (Applied Behavior Analysis) Training, RDI (Relationship Development Intervention) Training, and Sensory Therapy. Find out what each one is, what happens, and if it's right for you or your child.
- ABA Therapy - Center for Autism and Related Disorders
- ABOUT BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS | BACB
- Applied Behavioral Strategies - Getting to Know ABA - ABA is a discipline that employs objective data to drive decision-making about an individual’s program.
- What is Applied Behavior Analysis? - Explains how applied behavior analysis is a teaching method used to help children with autism learn to their full potential
- Applied behavior analysis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a procedure concerned with analyzing the principles of learning theory and systematically applying this knowledge to change behavior of social significance.[1][2] It is the applied form of behavior analysis; the other two forms are radical behaviorism (or the philosophy of the science) and the experimental analysis of behavior (or experimental research).[1]
The name "applied behavior analysis" has replaced behavior modification because the latter approach suggested attempting to change behavior without clarifying the relevant behavior-environment interactions. In contrast, ABA tries to change behavior by first assessing the functional relationship between a targeted behavior and the environment.[3] This approach often seeks to develop replacement behaviors which serve the same function as the aberrant behaviors - Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) | What is Autism?/Treatment | Autism Speak
Tabula Rasa
- Mind and philosophy: Tabula rasa – blank slate – meaning - "That would mean that you didn’t have any experiences before you were born. John Locke claimed that “in experience all our knowledge is funded”. I believe it is a very reasonable argument. Think about a skill you have learnt recently – how did you learn it? From experience. You can’t learn how to read without seeing letters, you can’t learn how to write without actually writing – you must experience something in order to learn something. This is the source of knowledge. Nevertheless, new born babies know how to suck mother’s breast despite the fact they have not experienced breast-feeding before. It is, however, disputable if such an act counts as knowledge or simply as reflex actions. Whatever the truth about reflex actions and knowledge is I strongly believe that knowledge does come from experience… And this is why I can’t agree with Locke’s tabula rasa view – we are already born with experiences."
- Locke, John (1632–1704) - The Tabula Rasa, The Role of Mathematics - Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood in History and Society - "Locke characterized a newborn child's mind as a blank sheet of paper, a clean slate, a tabula rasa. Implicit is a doctrine of egalitarianism, well-known from the fourth paragraph of the Second Treatise of Government: There is "nothing more evident, than that Creatures of the same species…born to all the same advantages of Nature, and the use of the same faculties, should also be equal amongst one another without Subordination or Subjection…. "
- John Locke - mind as a tabula rasa - "In our own times the social and psychological sciences tend to take the view that Human Beings are 'formed' socially and psychologically by nature as well as by nurture and that there are inherited traits that society can build on and to some extent modify."
- John Locke > By Individual Philosopher > Philosophy - "He claimed that "the mind is furnished with ideas by experience alone" (an idea being something within the mind that represents things outside the mind). However, he also argued that a proper application of our cognitive capacities is enough to guide our action in the practical conduct of life, and that it is in the process of reasoning that the mind confronts the raw ideas it has received (an approach not dissimilar to the Dualism of Descartes). His definition of knowledge might be stated, then, as the perception of the relationship between ideas.
Where Locke differed markedly from Descartes and other predecessors, though, was in the status he granted to the senses. Descartes held that the senses incline us to have certain beliefs, but that this alone does not amount to actual knowledge (which requires interpretation and explanation by reason and the intellect). For Locke, however, the senses themselves are a basic and fundamental faculty which deliver knowledge in their own right. Indeed, his whole conception of an idea differed from that of Descartes: for Descartes, an idea was fundamentally intellectual; for Locke it was fundamentally sensory, and all thought involved images of a sensory nature." - Tabula rasa - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Locke's Political Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
- NATURE VS. NURTURE: Tabula Rasa ("Blank Slate") - "The tabula rasa theory has strikingly similar characteristics of the nurture theory because the environment has the ability to shape an individual’s mind and experiences." Each new experience serves as a stage of growth, expanding possibilities and gathering new knowledge. Both nurture and tabula rasa view the environment and an individual’s surroundings as essential in forming human traits.
- John Locke @ NW Link - "Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge most easily when they first consider simple ideas and then gradually combine them into more complex ones. In Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1697), Locke recommended practical learning to prepare people to manage their social, economic, and political affairs efficiently. He believed that a sound education began in early childhood and insisted that the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic be gradual and cumulative."
- tabula rasa | philosophy | Britannica.com - "Tabula rasa, ( Latin: “scraped tablet”—i.e., “clean slate”) in epistemology (theory of knowledge) and psychology, a supposed condition that empiricists attribute to the human mind before ideas have been imprinted on it by the reaction of the senses to the external world of objects."
- Tabula rasa - New World Encyclopedia - "In computer science, tabula rasa refers to the development of autonomous agents that are provided with a mechanism to reason and plan toward their goal, but no "built-in" knowledge base of their environment. They are thus truly a "blank slate.""
- Educationalist Theory - "This was possible because, among other reasons, a child's mind was a "tabula rasa", or blank slate (Locke originally used the term in his earlier work An Essay concerning Human Understanding, considered by modern philosophers to be his most influential work). Since the child's mind was so malleable, a parent could mold him with careful diligence. After all, one could write good moral sense upon a blank slate as well as numerous faults.30"
BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT
- "The Bobo doll experiment was the collective name of experiments conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961 and 1963 when he studied children's behavior after watching an adult model act aggressively towards a Bobo doll. There are different variations of the experiment. The most notable experiment measured the children's behavior after seeing the model get rewarded, get punished, or experience no consequence for beating up the bobo doll. The experiments are empirical approaches to test Bandura's social learning theory. The social learning theory claims that people learn through observing, imitating, and modeling. It shows that people not only learn by being rewarded or punished (behaviorism), but they can also learn from watching somebody else being rewarded or punished (observational learning). These experiments are important because they sparked many more studies on the effects of observational learning. The studies not only give us new data, but this data has practical implications, e.g. how children can be influenced from watching violent media" - Wikipedia
- Bobo Doll Experiment | Simply Psychology - "The findings support Bandura's (1977) Social Learning Theory. That is, children learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observation learning - through watching the behavior of another person."
- Bobo Doll Experiment - Learning From Role Models - "Children witnessing an adult role model behaving in an overly aggressive manner would be likely to replicate similar behavior themselves, even if the adult was not present.
Subjects who had observed a non-aggressive adult would be the least likely to show violent tendencies, even if the adult was not present. They would be even less likely to exhibit this type of aggression than the control group of children, who had seen no role model at all.Bandura believed that children would be much more likely to copy the behavior of a role model of the same sex. He wanted to show that it was much easier for a child to identify and interact with an adult of the same gender.
The final prediction was that male children would tend to be more aggressive than female children, because society has always tolerated and advocated violent behavior in men more than women." - Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment - YouTube
- Bandura and Bobo - Association for Psychological Science - "But when it was their own turn to play with Bobo, children who witnessed an adult pummeling the doll were likely to show aggression too. Similar to their adult models, the children kicked the doll, hit it with a mallet, and threw it in the air. They even came up with new ways to hurt Bobo, such as throwing darts or aiming a toy gun at him. Children who were exposed to a non-aggressive adult or no model at all had far less aggression toward Bobo."
- Bobo doll experiment | psychology | Britannica.com - "In the final stage of the experiment, the children’s behaviour was observed over the course of 20 minutes and rated according to the degree of physically and verbally aggressive behaviour they modeled, the results of which yielded significantly higher scores for children in the aggressive behaviour model groups compared with those in both the nonaggressive behaviour model and control groups. Subsequent experiments in which children were exposed to such violence on videotape yielded similar results, with nearly 90 percent of the children in the aggressive behaviour groups later modeling the adults’ behaviour by attacking the doll in the same fashion and 40 percent of the those children exhibiting the same behaviour after eight months."
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
- "Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher. Particularly in childhood, a model is someone of authority or higher status. In animals, observational learning is often based on classical conditioning, in which an instinctive behavior is elicited by observing the behavior of another (e.g. mobbing in birds), but other processes may be involved as wel" - Wikipedia
- Bandura and Observational Learning
- What Is Observational Learning? - "A child watches his mother folding the laundry. He later picks up some clothing and imitates folding the clothes.A young couple goes on a date to a Chinese restaurant. They watch other diners in the restaurant eating with chopsticks and copy their actions in order to learn out to use these utensils.A young boy watches another boy on the playground get in trouble for hitting another child. He learns from observing this interaction that he should not hit others.
A group of children play hide and seek at recess. One child joins the group, but has never played before and is not sure what to do. After observing the other children play, she quickly learns the basic rules of the game and joins in." - Albert Bandura & Observational Learning - "Factors that influence observational learning: 1. Attention - the learner must have his/her senses directed at the model. 2. Retention, coding, and storing the patterns so they can be retrieved. This may include vivid imagery an verbal descriptions. 3. Motor reproduction - kinesthetic and neuromuscular patterns are practiced with successive iterations until the model's behavior is approximated by the observer. 4. Reinforcement and incentives- propel the learner to attention, practice and retention. Observe ---> Acquire Info about World ---> make cognitive reps (VAK) ---> guide for action "
- Examples of Observational Learning
- Educational Psychology Interactive: Observational Learning - "In more recent years, Bandura turned his attention to self-efficacy and self-regulation. He now classifies his theoretical orientation as social cognition."
Social learning theory (Albert Bandura)
- "Social learning theory (Albert Bandura) posits that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement." - Wikipedia
- Social Learning Theory Bandura Social Learning Theory - Necessary conditions for effective modeling: Attention. Retention. Reproduction. Motivtion
- Albert Bandura | Social Learning Theory | Simply Psychology - "In social learning theory Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviourist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas: ediating processes occur between stimuli & responses. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.
- Social Learning Theory - "The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised."
- Social Learning Theory | Psychology Today
- What is Social Learning Theory? - "One of the most influential learning theories, the Social Learning Theory (SLT), was formulated by Albert Bandura. It encompasses concepts of traditional learning theory and the operant conditioning of B.F. Skinner."
- ReCAPP: Theories & Approaches: Social Learning Theory - "observe and imitate the behaviors of others,see positive behaviors modeled and practiced, increase their own capability and confidence to implement new skills,gain positive attitudes about implementing new skills, and experience support from their environment in order to use their new skills.
Positive-incentive value
- "Positive-incentive value is the anticipated pleasure involved in the performance of a particular behavior, such as eating a particular food or drinking a particular beverage. It is a key element of the positive-incentive theories of hunger" - Wikipedia
- Positive-incentive value @America Pink - “Positive-incentive value is the anticipated pleasure involved in the performance of a particular behavior, such as eating a particular food or drinking a particular beverage. It is a key element of the positive-incentive theories of hunger.”
INSTINCT THEORY OF MOTIVATION
- @Explorable
- @About(dot)com - The instinct theory suggests that motivation is primarily biologically based. We engage in certain behaviors because they aid in survival.Migrating before winter ensures the survival of the flock, so the behavior has become instinctive.."
- Psychlopedia - Organisms are naturally motivated to cater to their biological needs.Learning can modify institutional behavior.Behaviors based off of innate factors.All creatures are born with specific knowledge about how to survive.Basic motivation to meet basic needs.Intrinsic.Organisms born with biologically based behaviors.
- @Psychology notes HQ
INCENTIVE THEORY
- Incentive Theory uploaded by khanacademymedicine
- @ About (dot) com - "Building on the base established by drive theories, incentive theories emerged in the 1940s and 1950s. Incentive theories proposed that behavior is motivated by the "pull" of external goals, such as rewards, money, or recognition. It's easy to think of many situations in which a particular goal, such as a promotion at work, can serve as an external incentive that helps activate particular behaviors."(Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2003)"
- @Explorable - "Incentives that give a positive guarantee for satisfying an individual’s needs and wants are called positive incentives. These incentives involve the principle of optimism and are provided to fulfil the employee’s psychological requirements. For instance, a supervisor praises a new employee for a job well done. Other positive incentives include recognition, job promotion, additional allowances, trophies and medals."
- Incentive Theory of Motivation and Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
- @Psychology Note HQ
- @AlleyDog - "Motivation is powered by external forces in the environment. Reinforcements like food and money make it more likely that an organism will continue behaviors that lead to these rewards in the future. "
Yerkes–Dodson law
- "The Yerkes–Dodson law is an empirical relationship between arousal and performance, originally developed by psychologists Robert M. Yerkes and John Dillingham Dodson in 1908.[1] The law dictates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point. When levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases. The process is often illustrated graphically as a bell-shaped curve which increases and then decreases with higher levels of arousal." - Wikipedia
- What Is the Yerkes-Dodson Law and How Does It Work? @ Very Well “The Yerk”es-Dodson Law suggests that there is a relationship between performance and arousal. Increased arousal can help improve performance, but only up to a certain point. At the point when arousal becomes excessive, performance diminishes.”
- Yerkes-Dodson law - Arousal @ NW Link - “The arousal level can be thought of as how much capacity you have available to work with. “
- Cognitive, Endocrine and Mechanistic Perspectives on Non-Linear Relationships Between Arousal and Brain Function @ NCBI - “In brief, Yerkes and Dodson found that when mice were given a simple discrimination task their performance improved linearly with increases in arousal. With more difficult tasks, the performance of the mice improved with moderate with increases in arousal, but at the highest levels of arousal their performance was impaired, forming an overall non-linear (inverted-U) shaped relationship between arousal and performance.”
- Yerkes-Dodson Law Of Arousal definition @ alleydog.com - “An example of this is an athlete who performs better under real game situation than he/she does during practice games. There is more arousal (stress, excitement) during the real games which increases their performance. But, if the pressure becomes too much, their performance can decrease (e.g., missing an easy shot with time running out and losing the game -- choking!).“
- Yerkes-Dodson law - Intro to Psychology uploaded by Udacity
- The Inverted-U Model - Stress Management From MindTools.com - “The left hand side of the graph shows the situation where people are under-challenged. Here, they see no reason to work hard at a task, or they're in danger of approaching their work in a "sloppy," unmotivated way.The middle of the graph shows where they're working at peak effectiveness. They're sufficiently motivated to work hard, but they're not so overloaded that they're starting to struggle. This is where people can enter a state of "Flow," the enjoyable and highly productive state in which they can do their best work. (See our article on the Flow Model Add to My Personal Learning Plan for more on this.)The right hand side of the graph shows where they're starting to "fall apart under pressure." They're overwhelmed by the volume and scale of competing demands on their attention, and they may be starting to panic.“
- The Sweet Spot for Achievement @ Psychology Today - “Chronic overwhelm can also harm the hippocampus, which is crucial for learning: this is where short-term memories, like what we've just heard or read, are converted to long- term memories, so we can recall them later. The hippocampus is extraordinarily rich in receptors for cortisol, so our capacity to learn is very vulnerable to stress. If we have constant stress in our lives, this flood of cortisol actually disconnects existing neural networks; we can have memory loss. This kind of extreme memory loss has been seen in clinical conditions, like post-traumatic stress disorder and extreme depression.”
- Yerkes-Dodson Law @ Changing Minds - “The behavior in the downturn has been called satisficing and is quite differently motivated from the earlier stages. Rather than gain satisfaction or reward from actions, the person who is is satisficing seeks any way of reducing their stress. This can lead to sub-optimal solutions being used, which accounts in part for the performance decline.”
- Yerkes-Dodson law uploaded by headlessprofessor
- Are You Too Stressed to Be Productive? Or Not Stressed Enough? @HBR - “ I always assumed that if I could just reduce any stress I was facing, my productivity would rise. But my intuition was, in fact, wrong. It’s true that stress can be a health risk, and that we’re often encouraged to avoid it if we want to live happy, productive, and long lives. But research suggests that some stress can actually be beneficial to performance.”
- The Flawed Experiment That "Proved" Stress Is Good For You @ io9 - “The entire story goes back to 1908, when Robert Yerkes and John Dillingham Dodson decided to engage in that most popular activity of psychologists — being horrible to lab rats. These particular lab rats were made to choose between a black door and a white door under different lighting conditions. They were corrected, when they made the wrong choice, by a series of electrical shocks. Yerkes and Dodson noticed that mild shocks improved the rats' performance. “
- The Correlation Between Stress and Performance - Examined Existence - “The graph can be highly variable depending on the complexity and familiarity of the task. Research has found that different tasks require different levels of arousal for optimal performance. For example, difficult or unfamiliar tasks may require lower levels of arousal (to facilitate concentration), whereas tasks demanding stamina or persistence may be performed better with higher levels of arousal (to induce and increase motivation).”
- Yerkes Dodson Law@ WikiofScience - “A study carried out by Broadhurst (1959 [1]) to confirm the Yerkes-Dodson Law on rats showed an acceptable significance. 120 male albine rats were allowed to swim underwater for 0, 2, 4, or 8 seconds. It was found that the optimum learning for the easiest discrimination task occured with the motivation induced by 4 seconds air depriviation.”
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Time-out (for BDSM 18+)
- @Wikipedia - “Time-out (also known as social exclusion) is a form of behavioural modification that involves temporarily separating a child from an environment where unacceptable behavior occurred. The goal is to remove the child from an enriched, enjoyable environment, and therefore lead to functional punishment or extinction of the offending behavior.”
- Time-Out is Extinction, Not Punishment by Dr. Lorraine M. Dorfman - “Time-out from reinforcement is different. There is only one operation and that is removing reinforcement for the undesired behavior. With an extinction procedure, behavior temporarily increases before dropping off entirely, never to return. The primary difficulty with extinction is ascertaining the source of reinforcement.”
- Time-Out Procedures @ Educate Autism - “The goal of implementing a time-out procedure is to decrease the future occurrence of a target behaviour, and there are two types of time-out: ‘exclusionary’ and ‘non-exclusionary’.”
- What is TIME OUT (TO) @ Psychology Dictionary - “a method, stemming from within behavior therapy, wherein unfavorable actions are weakened and their occurrences lessened, commonly by moving the person away from the region which is supporting said actions.”
- 4 Tips for Putting a Child in Time Out @ Dummies (dot) com
- Psychology Tools: How to Take a "Time Out" @ HealthyPsych.com - 1.) The first step involves identifying ways that you can take a time-out.2.) Second, you will likely need to inform others that you will resort to this option from time to time and explain the purpose for doing so.3.) Monitor your level of anger4.) Take the time-out.5.) When you return from the time-out
- How to Effectively Implement Time-out @ Child Psychology and Parenting Blog: Child-Psych.org
- Time out @ Psychology Wiki - “Generally the technique involves removing source of reward and/or reinforcement for any behavior that is unwanted”
- Guidelines For Using Time Out With Children and Preteens @ Child Development Info - Time Out Area.Amount of Time Spent in Time Out.Specifying Target Behaviors.
- Time Out From Reinforcement @ Intervention Central - “Typically, time-out is used in tandem with positive discipline techniques. For example, time-out might be employed to reduce the frequency of a student's negative behaviors (e.g., loud confrontations with teaching staff) while an individualized reward system might be put in place to increase the frequency of appropriate student behaviors (e.g., quickly and courteously complying with teacher requests).”
- Positive Time Out @ Positive Discipline - “Negative time out is based on the silly thought that in order to get children to do better, first we have to make them feel worse. Positive time out is based on the understanding that children "do" better when they "feel" better. Check out these premises for yourself. Do you do better when you feel worse, or when you feel better? It is fun to ask, "How would you respond if you spouse said to you, 'Go to your room and think about what you just did!'"? Most people laugh and say something such as, "I don't think so." Why do we think negative time out would be effective for children when it wouldn't be effective for us? Negative time out is certainly not effective if it perpetuates a child's discouraging beliefs about herself and her environment. Nor is it effective if those beliefs increase her need for revenge or rebellion in whatever form it takes.“
Tact (psychology)
- @ Wikipedia - “Tact is a term that B.F. Skinner used to describe a verbal operant which is controlled by a nonverbal stimulus (such as an object, event, or property of an object) and is maintained by nonspecific social reinforcement (praise)....The tact described by Skinner includes three important and related events, known as the 3-term-contingency: a stimulus, a response, and a consequence, in this case reinforcement.”
- Tact Training @ Liquisearch - “ Echoic prompts (teacher repeats the correct answer which the learner must echo) have also been used to train tact responses. Kodak and Clements (2009) found that echoic training sessions before tact training was more effective at increasing independent tact responses.”
- Tact (psychology) @ Abuse Wiki - “Chapter Five of Skinner's Verbal Behavior discusses the tact in depth. A tact is said to "make contact with" the world, and refers to behavior that is under the control of generalized reinforcement. The controlling antecedent stimulus is nonverbal, and constitutes some portion of "the whole of the physical environment".
Melioration Theory
@ Wikipedia - “theory in psychology used as an alternative to the Matching Law. Melioration theory is used as an explanation for why a being makes choices based on the rewards or reinforcers it receives. The principle of melioration states that animals will invest increasing amounts of time and/or effort into whichever alternative is better. To meliorate essentially means to "make better."
Melioration theory @ Psychology-Lexicon - “Melioration theory refers to a Theory of matching that holds that the distribution of Behavior in a choice situation shifts toward those alternatives that have higher value regardless of the long-term effect on overall amount of reinforcement.”
Melioration theory @- Psychology Wiki - “posits that organisms are sensitive to differences in the local rates of reinforcement: number of reinforcements obtained at an alternative event divided by time at that alternative bifurcation. Also, local might or might not mean the negative power function of inverse delay weighed sum of time-biased past reinforcement stimuli.”
A test of the melioration theory of matching. @ NCBI - “Melioration theory entails that matching in concurrent schedules occurs because the subjects equalize the local reinforcement rates (reinforcers received for each alternative divided by the time allocated to each alternative). The role of local reinforcement rates was tested by using multiple schedules in which one component involved an alternative with a high absolute rate of reinforcement and a low local reinforcement rate while the second component involved an alternative with a low absolute rate and a high local rate. These alternatives were then presented simultaneously in probe trials to determine preference between them. Contrary to melioration, the absolute rate of reinforcement, not the local rate, was the controlling variable.”
Melioration theory @ Psychology-Lexicon - “Melioration theory refers to a Theory of matching that holds that the distribution of Behavior in a choice situation shifts toward those alternatives that have higher value regardless of the long-term effect on overall amount of reinforcement.”
Melioration theory @- Psychology Wiki - “posits that organisms are sensitive to differences in the local rates of reinforcement: number of reinforcements obtained at an alternative event divided by time at that alternative bifurcation. Also, local might or might not mean the negative power function of inverse delay weighed sum of time-biased past reinforcement stimuli.”
A test of the melioration theory of matching. @ NCBI - “Melioration theory entails that matching in concurrent schedules occurs because the subjects equalize the local reinforcement rates (reinforcers received for each alternative divided by the time allocated to each alternative). The role of local reinforcement rates was tested by using multiple schedules in which one component involved an alternative with a high absolute rate of reinforcement and a low local reinforcement rate while the second component involved an alternative with a low absolute rate and a high local rate. These alternatives were then presented simultaneously in probe trials to determine preference between them. Contrary to melioration, the absolute rate of reinforcement, not the local rate, was the controlling variable.”
Mand
- @ Wikipedia - "Mand is a term that B.F. Skinner used to describe a verbal operant in which the response is reinforced by a characteristic consequence and is therefore under the functional control of relevant conditions of deprivation or aversive stimulation. One cannot determine, based on form alone, whether a response is a mand; it is necessary to know the kinds of variables controlling a response in order to identify a verbal operant. A mand is sometimes said to "specify its reinforcement" although this is not always the case."
- @ Very Well - "None of this is terribly complicated. But as in many technical fields, behavioral therapists use special terms -- or jargon -- to describe what they're doing. So...The treat or reward offered for a job well done is called a reinforcer. The request for a desired behavior is called a mand. An imitated sound or word (the therapist says "say spoon" and the child says "spoon") is called an echo. A verbal label (the therapist says "what is this?" and the child responds "spoon") is called a tact. A correct conversational response (the therapist says "what do you want?" and the child replies "a cookie") is called an intraverbal. So what's the difference between a mand and a request, or a reinforcer and a prize? For example, if you say "Janey, if you say spoon I'll give you a cookie," are you doing exactly the same thing as an ABA therapist would do? The difference, according to Amanda Reed, BAppSc, MA, Director of Development at Pyramid Group Management Services Corporation (the creators of PECS picture cards), is fairly small."A mand is essentially a request, but it's all about what comes before and after the request. Prior to the mand comes some kind of deprivation or aversive.""
- Verbal Operants Highlight: The Mand - Behavior Analysts Tampa: ABA Therapy, Autism, Behavior Problems, ADHD/Learning Disabilities - "“I want to eat ice cream,” “What day of the week is it?” “Where are my keys?” are just some of the ways we mand for things in our everyday lives. The function of a mand is to request something or to get what you want, such as desired items, information, assistance, missing items, actions, and getting rid of something aversive. Skinner said to think of a mand as a “demand” or “command.” Technically, a mand is verbal behavior whose form is controlled by a state of deprivation or aversion and it “specifies its own reinforcer.” To reinforce a mand (or to make it more probable that it will occur in the future), you would deliver the item requested; for example, if a child says “chips,” you would give him chips."
- Examples of ABA Therapy Mand Training!@ Trumpet Behavioral Health - "Mands can be used to request many things; desired items (“skittles”), information (“What’s your name?”), assistance (“Can you help me?”), missing items (given a direction to cut out a shape but not given scissors, the child says “I want some scissors”), actions (“tickle me”); and negative reinforcement (when told to do something that’s not preferred the student might ask “Can I take a break”)."
Cue Reactivity
- @ Wikipedia - “Cue reactivity is a type of learned response which is observed in individuals with an addiction and involves significant physiological and subjective reactions to presentations of drug-related stimuli (i.e., drug cues).[1] In investigations of these reactions, addicts are exposed to both drug-related cues (e.g., cigarettes, bottles of alcohol, drug paraphernalia) and drug-neutral cues (e.g., pencils, glasses of water, a set of car keys) while changes in craving self-report, physiological responses, and, less frequently, drug-use behaviors are monitored.”
- Cue reactivity to food- and body-related stimuli in restrained and unrestrained eaters @ Research Gate
- Food cue reactivity and craving predict eating and weight gain: a meta-analytic review @ Wiley Online Library - “According to learning-based models of behavior, food cue reactivity and craving are conditioned responses that lead to increased eating and subsequent weight gain. However, evidence supporting this relationship has been mixed. We conducted a quantitative meta-analysis to assess the predictive effects of food cue reactivity and craving on eating and weight-related outcomes”
- Food-cue reactivity @ University of Bristol - “It has recently become clear that food-cue exposure (exposure to the sight or smell of food) can have a powerful effect on appetite. Even brief exposure to the sight and smell of food has been shown to increase reported appetite, initiate ‘cephalic phase responses’ (the release of insulin, changes in salivation, heart rate, gastric activity, and blood pressure), and increase planned and actual consumption.”
Chaining
- @ Wikipedia - “It involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior. It is frequently used for training behavioral sequences (or "chains") that are beyond the current repertoire of the learner.”
- Chaining Forward and Chaining Backwards @ About - “Whenever we do a complete, multistep task, we complete the component parts in a specific order (though there can be some flexibility.) We start at some point and complete each step, one step at a time. Since these tasks are sequential we refer to teaching them step by step as "chaining."”
- Chaining and Shaping Behaviour – Mastering and Motivating the Child to Learn the Steps @ ConnectABILITY - “It is best to teach the sequence of steps from the beginning to the end (forwards chaining) when: The child understands the final end product. (e.g., Simithy understands that she will end up with a spoonful of food in her mouth.) The child is somewhat motivated to learn the new skill (e.g., She really wants the food, and now!) The child displays little resistance to following instruction and can tolerate possibly being prompted through several steps of the task analysis.In some cases, it is best to use backwards chaining (e.g., teach the child the last step first, then the second last step, etc.) You might choose to use this when:The child does not understand the final end product (e.g., a mouthful of food) and needs to be quickly taken to the end result.Motivation to learn the new skill is initially low and the child needs to very quickly receive an effective reward for cooperation and completion of the step. This will help to draw an association with the end product. Over time, as the child is required to complete more steps, she learns to tolerate delays in being rewarded.The child shows resistance to instruction, prompting, etc. and needs the instruction sessions to be very short, initially, so that she can experience a quick reward for her efforts. This will reduce future resistance, as the child understands that rewards are coming soon.”
- Association for Science in Autism Treatment Behavior Chaining@ Association for Science in Autism Treatment - “To teach a behavior chain, a complex skill or sequence of behaviors is first broken down into smaller units that may be easier to learn than the entire chain. For example, if a child is being taught how to make a baloney sandwich, the first step taught is to take out the bread, followed by taking out the baloney, then getting a plate, etc. The instructor then chooses one of three strategies: Forward chaining, backward chaining, and total-task presentation”
- Backward Chaining from Psychology: An Introduction by Russ Dewey - “In backward chaining this pattern is repeated many times to build up a chain of consecutive behaviors”
- Chaining « Mathehu's Weblog - “Using a backward chaining approach, the first step could be to perform a task analysis. In other words, to break the entire process of blogging down into meaningful steps. This could be followed by a demonstration of how working through these steps will lead to the publication of a blog. “
- Chaining: Choosing a Backward, Forward or Total Task Approach @ Cheryl Gray - “When conducting backward chaining, the teacher provides substantial assistance, even hand-over-hand guidance, through the initial steps in the task analysis ...until she gets to the last step that the student can't do independently...Forward chaining is what you might expect. It involves teaching the initial step first, with conditioned reinforcement following that first link.”
- Shaping and chaining @ BBB Autism - “Define the target behavior: The behavior you want hasn’t occurred yet; it’s the goal at the end of the process, so you must decide what behavior is to be “shaped up”. To get to the target behavior, you must have a clear idea of what it is.Reinforce successive approximations of the target behavior: The target behavior is ‘shaped up’ by reinforcing the nearest approximations of that behavior. If the child gets stuck at a particular step, you can usually induce variability in behavior by withholding reinforcement. Some of the new behavior will be in the direction you want the behavior to go and can then be reinforced. Reinforce an approximation several times or until a closer approximation appears, whichever comes first. If no new approximation has appeared after several reinforcements, withhold reinforcement until a new approximation occurs. (Note: see handout “Prompting and Fading” to help encourage new approximations) In general, shaping progresses more rapidly when the increases in the requirements for reinforcement are small. When you hold out for something better, the something better should be only a very slight improvement. If an approximation appears that is a big advance, reinforce it’; but don’t hold out for big advances.“
Countercontrol
- @ WIkipedia - There are two types of countercontrol:Counterattack or aggression.Nonviolent resistance or escape. Countercontrol is mostly avoidance or escape behavior, thus, this behavior class is only unique insofar as the behaver is (a) confronted with some form of aversive interpersonal or social controlling stimulation and (b) responds to oppose control rather than to reinforce it by ‘giving in’.“
- Countercontrol in behavior analysis @ NCBI - “Countercontrol refers to behavioral episodes comprised of socially mediated aversive controlling conditions and escape or avoidance responses that do not reinforce, and perhaps even punish, controllers' responses.”
Habituation
- Habituation and Sensitization @ Responsible Dog and Cat, LLC - “Habituation refers to decreases in responses by repeated presentation of a known stimulus; sensitization is the opposite and refers to increased responses, with both types of change resulting from previous experience”
- @ Vocabulary - “The word "habit" in habituate is a clue to its meaning — by habituating, you're helping a creature or person get used to new surroundings and establish new habits, especially in a new habitat (home).”
- @ Alley Dog - “Over time and repeated exposures to this picture you might start feeling like you've "seen it a million times" and it just doesn't have the same effect on you that it used to. This is habituation.”
- Habituation @ Animal Behavior - “Habituation is an extremely simple form of learning, in which an animal, after a period of exposure to a stimulus, stops responding. The most interesting thing about habituation is that it can occur at different levels in the nervous system. Sensory systems may stop, after a while, sending signals to the brain in response to a continuously present or often-repeated stimulus (Cohen et al. 1997). Lack of continued response to strong odors is a common example of sensory habitation. Habituation to complex stimuli may occur at the level of the brain; the stimulus is still perceived, but the animal has simply "decided" to no longer pay attention (Rose and Rankin 2001).”
- Habituation - The "Get Used to It" Concept @ Explorable - “The amount of time in between the first presentation of the stimulus to the organism up to the second presentation, known as inter-stimulus interval.The length of time during which the stimulus is presented, known as stimulus duration.
- Suppose there are two stimuli: A and B. The stimulus duration of A is 10 seconds, while that of B is 20 seconds. The concept of habituation holds that the longer the organism is exposed to the stimulus, the faster habituation occurs. Therefore, comparing the stimulus duration of A and B, we can conclude that habituation happens faster in B than in A because the organism is exposed to it.”
- @ Very Well - “Some of the key characteristics of habituation include the following:If the habituation stimulus is not presented for a long enough period before a sudden reintroduction, the response will once again reappear at full-strength, a phenomenon known as spontaneous recovery.The more frequently a stimulus is presented; the faster habituation will occur.Very intense stimuli tend to result in slower habituation. In some cases, such as deafening noises like a car alarm or a siren, habituation will never occur.Changing the intensity or duration of the stimulation may result in a reoccurrence of the original response.Habituation can generalize to similar stimuli.“
- @ Wikipedia - “Habituation is the decrease of a response to a repeated eliciting stimulus that is not due to sensory adaption or motor fatigue. Sensory adaptation (or neural adaptation) occurs when an organism can no longer detect the stimulus as efficiently as when first presented and motor fatigue occurs when an organism is able to detect the stimulus but can no longer respond efficiently.“
Desensitization (psychology)
*Also see Systematic Desensitization
- @ OMICS international - “In psychology, desensitization is defined as the diminished emotional responsiveness to a negative or aversive stimulus after repeated exposure to it. It also occurs when an emotional response is repeatedly evoked in situations in which the action tendency that is associated with the emotion proves irrelevant or unnecessary. “
Equipotentiality
- @Wikipedia - “In behaviorism, the theory of equipotentiality suggests that any two stimuli can be associated in the brain, regardless of their nature.”
- The premise of equipotentiality in human classical conditioning: conditioned electrodermal responses to potentially phobic stimuli. @ NCBI
hyperbolic discounting
- @ Wikipedia - “Given two similar rewards, humans show a preference for one that arrives sooner rather than later. Humans are said to discount the value of the later reward, by a factor that increases with the length of the delay. This process is traditionally modeled in form of exponential discounting, a time-consistent model of discounting. A large number of studies have since demonstrated that the constant discount rate assumed in exponential discounting is systematically being violated.[1] Hyperbolic discounting is a particular mathematical model devised as an alternative to exponential discounting.”
- Six Advantages of Hyperbolic Discounting...And What The Heck Is It Anyway? @ Kissmetrics - “Hyperbolic discounting happens when people would rather receive $5 right now than ten bucks in a month. That’s it. People value the immediacy of time over the higher value of money.”
- Hyperbolic and exponential discounting @ Intmath
- How Hyperbolic Discounting in Behavioral Economics Explains Your Irrational Money Choices @ Moneyning - “Would you prefer a nice crisp $50 dollar in your hot little hands today, or would you prefer to receive $55 in 10 months? Chances are, you chose the instant money, despite the fact that waiting would give you 10% more — a rate you’d kill for from your bank’s savings account.”
- Microsoft Word - Encyc_Hyperbolic discounting.doc
- Hyperbolic discounting @ Changing Minds - “Ainslie showed that this effect happens with pigeons, implying that it was a deep instinct.”
- Hyperbolic Discounting: Why your decisions are already made before you make them @ Money Cactus- “Do you often wonder why you have trouble following through on an action when the time comes, even though you always intended to do so? The cause of this is the diminishing value you place on achieving your goal as time draws closer. This change in value over time is called hyperbolic discounting.Example:Maybe you promised yourself a coffee on the way to work if you went to the gym before hand. The night before this seemed like a very achievable goal and the reward of the coffee would more than compensate your effort of waking up early and doing the hard work.When your alarm goes off the next morning to wake you for the gym, you hit the snooze button, roll over and go back to sleep – maybe you could just go to the gym after work instead?Hyperbolic discounting describes the inconsistency in your choices about the same thing at different points in time, this is also referred to as dynamic inconsistency. These choices require you to evaluate the costs and benefits of a goal or reward and may relate to any number of things, including saving money, exercising, your diet, the amount of work you do and even your relationships.Up to a certain point most people will choose a lesser reward if they can have it today rather than waiting, but if the reward isn’t available for an extended period most people will gladly hold out a little longer in order to receive a greater reward instead.”
- hyperbolic discounting uploaded by Ben Vincent
- Hyperbolic Discounting uploaded by Alexander Spencer
- Hyperbolic Discounting • Damn Interesting - “In essence, hyperbolic discounting is the human tendency to prefer smaller payoffs now over larger payoffs later, which leads one to largely disregard the future when it requires sacrifices in the present. Being mortal creatures with limited lifespans and resources, the human survival instinct has evolved to appreciate that one cannot enjoy a conserved resource tomorrow if one doesn’t survive today. This hard-wired tendency may be the bias behind our temporal short-sightedness, causing many people to make decisions which lead to short-term happiness and long-term disaster.”
iMITATION & Sensory Feedback Theory
- Imitation: definitions, evidence, and mechanisms. @ NCBI - “To a biologist, interest in imitation is focused on its adaptive value for the survival of the organism, but to a psychologist, the mechanisms responsible for imitation are the most interesting.”
- @Wikipedia - “Imitation (from Latin imitatio, "a copying, imitation") is an advanced behavior whereby an individual observes and replicates another's behavior. Imitation is also a form of social learning that leads to the "development of traditions, and ultimately our culture. It allows for the transfer of information (behaviours, customs, etc.) between individuals and down generations without the need for genetic inheritance."The word imitation can be applied in many contexts, ranging from animal training to international politics. The term generally refers to conscious behavior; subconscious imitation is termed mirroring.”
- Infants and Imitation @Psychology Today
- Imitation in Animals @ Pigeon. Psy - “Observational conditioning may also play a role in an experiment in which observation of experienced demonstrators facilitated the opening of hickory nuts by red squirrels, relative to trial-and-error learning (Weigle & Hanson, 1980). Differential local enhancement can be ruled out, in this case, because animals in both groups quickly approached and handled the nuts, and the observers actually handled the nuts less than controls (perhaps because observers were more efficient at opening them). However, observers alone got to see the open nuts and they had the opportunity to associate open nuts with eating by the demonstrator.”
- Imitation @ New World Encyclopedia - “Children learn by imitating adults. Their powerful ability to imitate—that serves them well in so many situations—can actually lead to confusion when they see an adult doing something in a disorganized or inefficient way. They will repeat unnecessary steps, even wrong ones, that they have observed an adult performing, rethinking the purpose of the object or task based on the observed behavior, a phenomenon termed "over-imitation."”
- The Theory of Imitation in Social Psychology by The American Journal os Sociology
- imitation Facts, information, pictures @ Encyclopedia.com - “Exposing a person to a complex sequence of stimulation does not guarantee that he will attend to the entire range of cues, that he will necessarily select from a total stimulus complex only the most relevant stimuli, or that he will even perceive accurately the cues to which his attention is directed. Motivational variables, prior training in discriminative observation, and the induction of incentive-oriented sets may be highly influential in channeling, augmenting, or reducing the observation of responses, which is a necessary conditioning for imitative learning.In addition to attention-directing variables, the rate, amount, and complexity of modeling stimuli presented to the observer may partly determine the degree of imitative learning"
- imitation Facts, information, pictures @ Encyclopedia.com “In the second, or “empathetic,” form of imitative learning, the model not only exhibits the responses but also experiences the reinforcing consequences himself. It is assumed that the observer, in turn, experiences empathetically the sensory concomitants of the model’s behavior and also intuits the model’s satisfactions or dissatisfactions. As a result of this higher-order vicarious conditioning, the observer will be predisposed to reproduce the matching responses for the attendant positive sensory feedback.”
Preconditioning (adaptation)
- Notes from "Pavlov's Wednesdays": Sensory Preconditioning on JSTOR
- Preconditioning @ Psychology Wiki - Wikia - “Preconditioning or sensory preconditioning is a phenomenon of classical conditioning that demonstrates learning of an association between two conditioned stimuli.”
- @ Wikipedia - “Three mechanism are thought to gives rise to the effect,1) S-S pathway of associations. 2) Mediated Conditioning (S-UCs). 3) Gestalt Conditioning (associative)”
- Sensory preconditioning @ Psychological Resources - “Sensory preconditioning pairing of two neutral stimuli prior to one of them being used as the conditioned stimulus in a standard classical conditioning procedure, leading to the other stimulus acquiring the power to evoke the conditioned response“
- Sensory Preconditioning uploaded by Kayla Lane
Neutral stimulus
- Educational Psychology Interactive: Classical Conditioning @ EDU Psychc Interactive - “does not elicit the response of interest: this stimulus (sometimes called an orienting stimulus as it elicits an orienting response) is a neutral stimulus since it does not elicit the Unconditioned (or reflexive) Response.”
- @Alley Dog - “A Neutral Stimulus is a stimulus that produces no response other than catching your attention. For example, let's say you have to bring your child to the pediatrician for a shot.“
- @Wikipedia - “A neutral stimulus is a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention.
establishing operation
- Establishing Operation @ North Shore Pediatric Therapy - “Establishing operations have two effects: they result in a change in the reinforcing effectiveness of some stimulus, object, or event, and they result in a change in the frequency of the behavior that has been reinforced by that stimulus, object, or event (Michael, 1982; 2000; Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). For example, food deprivation creates an establishing operation for the need to consume food.”
- Establishing Operation @ Foxy Learning
- The Role of the Establishing Operation in Performance Management: Changing the Value of Consequences @ PM eZine - “Dr. Michael defines establishing operations as motivating variables having two effects: They momentarily alter the reinforcing or punishing effectiveness of some events or objects. They momentarily alter the frequency of behavior that, in the past, has been consequated with those events or objects whose value has been altered.“
- Establishing Operation Framework uploaded by Ding I Ling
- The Establishing Operation in Organizational Behavior Management - Journal of Organizational Behavior Management - Volume 18, Issue 1 - “More comprehensive behavior analyses of organizational interventions should lead to better prediction and control of organizational behavior. Better analyses require the adoption of more extensive behavioral concepts into organizational behavior management (OBM) research and practice. The purpose of this paper is to discuss such a concept: the establishing operation (Michael, 1982). A definition of the establishing operation is presented followed by three examples.”
Pair by association
- Paired–associate Learning @ Definition of Paired–associate Learning by Merriam-Webster - “: the learning of syllables, digits, or words in pairs (as in the study of a foreign language) so that one member of the pair evokes recall of the other”
- Paired-Associates Learning @| in Chapter 06: Memory | from Psychology: An Introduction by Russ Dewey - “In paired-associates learning, a list was considered memorized when the subject could respond to any stimulus from the list with its associated response. This was supposed to resemble real-life situations in which a person responded to a stimulus such as the sight of a person's face with a response such as a name.”
- Pair by association @ Wikipedia - “In relation to psychology, pair by association is the action of associating a stimulus with an arbitrary idea or object, eliciting a response, usually emotional. This is done by repeatedly pairing the stimulus with the arbitrary object.”
- Meaning of Pair by association @ Enclyclo - “For example, repeatedly pairing images of beautiful women in bathing suits elicits a sexual response in most men...”
- Human Nature #1: Association @ Wiser Daily - “Let’s see if we can better understand how association comes to affect our lives..” Memory.Conditioning. Halo Effect.Shooting the messenger
- Paired-Associate Learning @ JRank Articles - “This pattern holds true when the response has never been used as a stimulus. On the other hand, if a particular word (e.g., cloud) has been used both as a stimulus and as a response (e.g., cloud-pen and bag-cloud), the learner gets accustomed to using the word in two ways. In later testing, the subject is likely to remember the word pair correctly when presented with either word. Based on research such as this, psychologists have concluded that learners remember the word pair as a unit, not as a stimulus that simply leads to a response.”
- Paired Association and Classical Conditioning @ Mental Health - “Anxiety can be learned through a type of learning called classical conditioning. This occurs via a process called paired association. Paired association refers to the pairing of anxiety symptoms with a neutral stimulus. A neutral stimulus can be any situation, event, or object that is does not ordinarily elicit a fearful response. In the previous example, the grocery store would be a neutral stimulus. By pairing the anxiety symptoms of an uncued panic attack, with the neutral stimulus (the grocery story), anxiety now becomes associated with the neutral stimulus. Thus, a previously neutral stimulus (the grocery store) now evokes an anxious response. Because of this pairing, the "neutral" stimulus, which was previously considered non-threatening, subsequently becomes capable of automatically causing a fearful response. This is because the person has "learned" it was a cue to a threat. The person has learned to be anxious via classical conditioning. Once this learning has occurred, the previously neutral stimulus (the grocery store) becomes a conditioned stimulus that spontaneously evokes a fear response. The grocery store now prompts a cued panic attack due to the learning that took place. In other words, the grocery store now serves as a cue for danger.”
Sensitization
- Sensitization @ Vocabulary.com - “In psychology talk, a person might develop a sensitization from an emotional situation. “
- Habituation and Sensitization @ Responsible Dog and Cat, LLC - “Sensitization is the opposite of habituation in that it produces increases in responsiveness, rather than decreasing responses. However, like habituation sensitization does not usually have lasting effects. According to Domjan (2003), "in all response systems the duration of sensitization effects is determined by the intensity of the sensitizing stimulus" with the greater the stimulus the greater responsiveness and the more intense the stimuli, the longer the duration the sensitizing effects will persist.”
- @ AlleyDog - “Sensitization, in psychology, refers to a non-associative learning process through which repeated exposure to a stimulus results in the progressive amplification (increasing strength) of the reaction to the stimulus.“
- Sensitization @ Psychology Wiki - “Sensitization is a non-associative learning process in which repeated administrations of a stimulus results in the progressive amplification of a response.[1] Sensitization often is characterized by an enhancement of response to a whole class of stimuli in addition to the one that is repeated. For example, repetition of a painful stimulus may make one more responsive to a loud noise.”
- Sensitization @ Explorable - “When you rub your arms continuously, you will feel a warm sensation due to the repeated stimulation of the peripheral nerves located in your arms. However, after some time this warm sensation would turn into a painful feeling, so your brain would warn you that rubbing your arms vigorously for a long time would be harmful and painful for you. This is scenario is an example of sensitization.”
- Principles of Learning: More on Habituation and Sensitization @ Ablong Man - “You're sitting in a boring lecture when you notice that the speaker says "okay" after almost every sentence and during pauses. Subsequent "okays" become more and more annoying. This is an example of sensitization. You are experiencing an increased response (increased annoyance) to a repeated stimulus (the speaker's "okays").”
RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM
- Reciprocal determinism | Theories of attitude and behavior change @ Khan Academy
- Reciprocal Determinism @ Buzzle - "Determinism is the theory that portrays that a person's actions, behavior, or decisions are just an outcome of the events that have happened in the past. This means that our actions are just reactions to what has already happened. The way we behave today is just a reaction to past events. He agreed with the theory of determinism that our behavior and actions are a causation of past events, but he was also of the opinion that the environment is caused or affected by our behavior as well."
- Reciprocal determinism @ Psychlopedia - "Your interest in psychology (cognition/self) will lead you to spend time with the psychology department on campus (environment),and that will cause you to interact with students and faculty that share your interest (social behavior)."
- @ Wikipedia - "Reciprocal determinism is the theory set forth by psychologist Albert Bandura that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment. Bandura accepts the possibility of an individual's behavior being conditioned through the use of consequences. At the same time he asserts that a person's behavior (and personal factors, such as cognitive skills or attitudes) can impact the environment. These skill sets result in an under- or overcompensated ego that, for all creative purposes are too strong or too weak to focus on pure outcome. This is important because Bandura was able to prove the strong correlation between this with experiments."
- Reciprocal determinism uploaded by Brooke Miller - "What is social-cognitive theory? What is reciprocal determinism and what does it say about the interactions between our behavior, our cognitions, and our environment."
- What Is Reciprocal Determinism? @ Very Well - "Reciprocal determinism suggests that individuals function as a result of a dynamic and reciprocal interaction among their behavior, environment, and personal characteristics. Personal characteristics include one's thoughts, emotions, expectations, beliefs, goals, and so forth. Behavior is conceptualized as a person's skills and actions. Lastly, environment is considered to be a person's social and physical surroundings. All three systems interact with each other; therefore, a change in one will influence the others as well. Reciprocal determinism indicates that people do have a say in their future, because of reciprocal interactions."
- Reciprocal Determinism definition @ alleydog.com - "According to Albert Bandura, a person's behavior is both influenced by and influences a person's personal factors and the environment. "
DIFFERENTIAL OUTCOMES EFFECT
- @ Wikipedia - "The Differential Outcomes Effect not only states that an association between a stimulus and a response is formed as traditional Classical Conditioning states, but that a simultaneous association is formed between a stimulus and a reinforcer in the subject. If one were to pair a stimulus with a reinforcer, that is known as a differential condition. When this is employed, one can expect a higher accuracy in tests when discriminating between two stimuli, due to this increased amount of information available to the subject than in a nondifferential condition."
- A differential outcomes effect using biologically neutral outcomes in delayed matching-to-sample with pigeons - The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section B - Volume 54, Issue 1 - "The differential outcomes effect (DOE) pertains to enhanced conditional discrimination performance if each correct stimulus-choice sequence is always followed by a different outcome (e.g., food vs. water) compared to when each correct sequence is followed equally often by either outcome. The present experiments sought evidence of a DOE in pigeons, using biologically neutral outcomes. Experiment 1 replicated findings with rats demonstrating that a DOE can occur when one outcome is a biologically neutral light and the other is the absence of that light. Experiment 2 extended these findings by demonstrating a DOE when two biologically neutral outcomes of similar sensory and associative properties were employed."
- The effects of differential outcomes and different types of consequential stimuli on 7-year-old children’s discriminative learning and memory (pdf) @ Paperity - "Researchers have demonstrated that discriminative learning is facilitated when a particular outcome is associated with each relation to be learned. Our primary purpose in the two experiments reported here was to assess whether the differential outcomes procedure (DOP) would enhance 7-year-old children’s learning of symbolic discriminations using three different forms of consequences in which (1) reinforcers are given when correct choices are made (“+”), (2) reinforcers are withdrawn when errors are made (“−”), or (3) children receive a reinforcer following a correct choice and lose one following an incorrect choice (“+/−”), as well as different types of reinforcers (secondary and primary reinforcers, Experiment 1; primary reinforcers alone, Experiment 2). Participants learned the task faster and showed significantly better performance whenever differential outcomes were arranged independently of (1) the way of providing consequences (+, −, or +/−) and (2) the type of reinforcers being used. Interestingly, as in a previous study with 5-year-old children (Martínez, Estévez, Fuentes, & Overmier, The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 62(8):1617–1630, 2009), the use of the DOP also enhanced long-term persistence of learning."
- The differential outcomes effect: A useful tool to improve discriminative learning in humans. @ Psychnet - "These results also suggest that the differential outcomes procedure may be useful as a technique for facilitating learning and memory of conditional symbolic relationships. This type of conditional discriminative choice learning is relatively common and important for our success in everyday life. For instance, when cooking a recipe we might have to discriminate between the letters “t” and “T” that may be contained in the words teaspoon and tablespoon, respectively, which refers to different spoon size. That is, we need to correctly associate the letters “t” and “T” with their respective spoon size; and a failure to do so might result in a disastrous meal. There are people who have deficits in conditional discriminative learning and, therefore, simple tasks that require this type of discriminations may be a challenge for them. Our daily life is plenty of similar examples, so it is important to validate techniques that may ameliorate their learning deficits and may facilitate their discriminative performance in such tasks. The differential outcomes procedure appears to be such a technique, which can be easily implemented in a teaching environment. Teaching new tasks and discriminations with the differential outcomes procedure could allow patients with discriminative learning disabilities to circumvent the limitations imposed on them."
- Differential-outcomes effect using hedonically nondifferential outcomes with delayed matching to sample by pigeons @ SpringerLink - "When differential outcomes follow correct responses to each of two comparison stimuli in matching to sample, relative to the appropriate control condition, higher matching accuracy is typically found, especially when there is a delay between the sample and the comparison stimuli. In two experiments, we examined whether this differential-outcomes effect depends on using outcomes that differ in hedonic value (e.g., food vs. water). In Experiment 1, we found facilitated retention when a blue houselight followed correct responses to one comparison stimulus and a white houselight followed correct responses to the other, prior to nondifferential presentations of food. In Experiment 2, we found facilitated retention again when a blue houselight followed correct responses to one comparison stimulus and a tone followed correct responses to the other, prior to nondifferential presentations of food. The results of both experiments indicate that the differential-outcomes effect does not depend on a difference in hedonic value of the differential outcomes, and they suggest that outcome anticipations consisting of relatively arbitrary but differential stimulus representations can serve as cues for comparison choice."
- The differential outcomes effect (DOE) in spatial localization: An investigation with adults by Eric Legge @ Academia.edu- "We investigated whether search accuracy of adult humans could be enhanced using differential reward contingencies in land-mark-based spatial tasks conducted on a computer screen. We found that search accuracy was significantly enhanced by differential outcomes in a conditional spatial search task, in which the landmark-to-goal relationship depended on a previously presented sample object (Experiment 4). In contrast, no significant differential outcomes effect (DOE) was seen in several other variations of spatial search tasks. We interpret the pattern of significant and non-significant results in terms of the information value of out-come expectancies. To our knowledge this is the first report of a DOE in a landmark-based spatial localization task and is one of only a few demonstrations that differential outcomes can enhance memory performance in normal functioning adults."
- The Differential Outcomes Effect in Pigeons (Columba livia): Is It Truly Anticipatory? @ PLOS ONE - "We used delay-interval interference to investigate the nature of the differential outcomes effect (DOE) in pigeons. Birds were trained on a delayed matching-to-sample (DMS) task under either common outcome or differential outcome conditions, and then presented with visual interference during the delay period. Consistent with previous literature, the common outcomes birds were slower to learn the DMS task than the differential outcomes birds. The common outcome birds were also more impaired by the visual interference than the differential outcomes birds. Our findings are consistent with the view that the birds trained with common outcomes were likely remembering the sample stimulus during the delay period, and hence were disrupted by the visual interference, whereas the birds trained with differential outcomes were likely relying on the different emotional reactions elicited by the different outcomes to guide their choice behaviour, and hence were less affected by the visual interference. Our findings suggest that the DOE is not truly evidence of anticipatory mediation of short-term retention in pigeons, but rather emotionally driven decision making, which is not truly anticipatory in nature."
- The differential outcomes procedure can interfere or enhance operant rule learning. @ NCBI - The differential outcomes effect--the enhancement of learning and memory performance by correlating distinct reinforcers with to-be-remembered events (sample stimuli)--has been stated to be one of the most robust phenomena in learning psychology. However, in this paper we demonstrate that the correlation between unique samples and unique reinforcers can either interfere with or enhance learning a spatial matching-rule, dependent on whether these two processes are trained concurrently or sequentially. If the Pavlovian conditioning (unique sample-reward pairings) occurs before the matching rule is learned (sequentially), the conditioned expectations of unique rewards will enhance the acquisition of the spatial matching-rule in rats (the differential outcomes effect will be observed). However, if rats are required to learn the Pavlovian associations and the matching-rule concurrently, they are impaired in acquiring the spatial matching-rule. Thus, employing the differential outcomes procedure can either enhance or detract from learning and remembering the task rule-dependent on the nature of the task and order of training. These data suggest that under some circumstances learning Pavlovian associations can compete with the formation of instrumental behavior.
Behavioral momentum
- Applying Behavioral Momentum Theory to Increase Compliance - Journal of Applied School Psychology - Volume 19, Issue 1 - “Behavioral momentum has been used as a theory to create effective interventions to increase compliance with requests, including student compliance in schools. These interventions are based on delivering a series of high probability compliance request-response-reinforcement (RRR) trials at high rates just prior to providing a request for a response that has often resulted in noncompliance. In this article, a real example of a substitute teacher leading her class through the Hokey-Pokey is used to describe and clarify interventions based on behavioral momentum. Analysis of specific procedural variables that may impact the effectiveness of interventions based on behavioral momentum theory is provided to assist practitioners with development and implementation of these proce dures within educational contexts. Recommendations for future research on this innovative technology are provided.”
- How To: Increase Motivation in Students: High-Probability Requests @ Intervention Central - Identify incidents of non-compliant behavior.List high-probability task.Create activities with embedded high-probability tasks.Introduce the activities
- Challenged? Try Behavioral Momentum! @ Behavioral Science in the 21st Century - “By following a pattern such as… easy-easy-hard-easy-easy-hard…you increase the probability to do the “hard” behavior you are focused on.”
- I Love ABA!: Behavioral Momentum - “Lastly, using Behavioral Momentum will also minimize you becoming an Aversive Stimulus. An aversive stimulus is something that we learn to avoid or escape from over time, as it is associated with unpleasantness. Kind of the way for some people, going to the dentist is an Aversive Stimulus. If your child knows that every time you approach them and squat down to their level it is to give a demand, it won’t be long before they start running/ walking off when you approach. By using Behavioral Momentum, your approach gets associated with good things, compliments, praise, high fives, tickles, etc.”
- Behavior momentum: increasing efficiency in training @ Smart Animal Training Systems... - “ So the strength of any behavior depends on how often it was rewarded (Matching Law). That behavior will also be more resistant to changes in the environment. If another person walks in the room, the dog is still likely to ‘sit’ when asked, but she may not lie down. That resistance to change is what is referred to as behavior momentum. In that sense, learned behavior can be compared to the physical effects of obstacles or external forces applied to an object in movement (Nevin & al., 1983). If a large boulder comes rolling down a hill at the same time as a small rock, it’s mass and velocity will give it so much momentum that to stop it would require much more force and resistance than to stop the small rock. If we go back to our example, the ‘sit’ could be compared to the boulder and the ‘down’ to the small rock. The mass of the behavior is defined by how much change in the environment it would take to disrupt it. Its velocity is related to its response rate.”
- Behavioral momentum in the treatment of noncompliance.@ NCBI - “Behavioral momentum refers to the tendency for behavior to persist following a change in environmental conditions. The greater the rate of reinforcement, the greater the behavioral momentum. The intervention for noncompliance consisted of issuing a sequence of commands with which the subject was very likely to comply (i.e., high-probability commands) immediately prior to issuing a low-probability command. In each of five experiments, the high-probability command sequence resulted in a "momentum" of compliant responding that persisted when a low-probability request was issued. Results showed the antecedent high-probability command sequence increased compliance and decreased compliance latency and task duration. "Momentum-like" effects were shown to be distinct from experimenter attention and to depend on the contiguity between the high-probability command sequence and the low-probability command.”
- Topic Center - News - May Institute - “Designing a program using behavioral momentum is simple. It is also easy to implement, and can be used to motivate individuals of all ages. First, analysts, teachers, or parents identify easy and difficult tasks. Then they decide in what order they will present these tasks. The number of easy tasks they will present depends on the amount of momentum needed to motivate the individual to complete the difficult task. Making two or three easy task requests before the difficult task request is typically a good way to start. Easy task requests should be simple and brief. They should also be familiar requests that have been successfully completed in the past.”
- Behavioral momentum and relapse of extinguished operant responding @ SpringerLink - “Previous experiments on behavioral momentum have shown that relative resistance to extinction of operant behavior in the presence of a stimulus depends on the rate of reinforcement associated with that stimulus, even if some of those reinforcers occur independently of the behavior. We present three experiments examining whether the rate of reinforcement in the presence of a stimulus similarly modulates the relative relapse of operant behavior produced by reinstatement, resurgence, and renewal paradigms. During baseline conditions, pigeons responded for food reinforcement on variable-interval 120-sec schedules in alternating periods of exposure to two stimuli arranged by a multiple schedule. Additional response-independent food presentations were also delivered in the presence of one of the multiple-schedule stimuli. Consistent with previous research, baseline response rates were lower in the presence of the stimulus with the added response-independent reinforcement, and relative resistance to extinction was greater in the presence of that stimulus. In addition, following extinction, the relative relapse of responding produced by reinstatement, resurgence, and renewal paradigms was greater in the presence of the stimulus associated with the higher rate of reinforcement. We suggest that a model of extinction from behavioral momentum theory may be useful for understanding these results.”
- @ Wikipedia - “Behavioral momentum is a theory in quantitative analysis of behavior and is a behavioral metaphor based on physical momentum. It describes the general relation between resistance to change (persistence of behavior) and the rate of reinforcement obtained in a given situation.B.F. Skinner (1938) proposed that all behavior is based on a fundamental unit of behavior called the discriminated operant. The discriminated operant, also known as the three-term contingency, has three components: an antecedent discriminative stimulus, a response, and a reinforcing or punishing consequence. The organism responds in the presence of the stimulus because past responses in the presence of that stimulus have produced reinforcement.”
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF BEHAVIOR
- Experimental Analysis of Behavior @ Association for Behavior Analysis International - Readings
- behavioranalysishistory / The Experimental Analysis of Behavior - Readings
- Glossary of Terms for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior @ The University of Iowa - "The experimental analysis of behavior divides that behavior stream into discrete parts for identifying the fundamental laws of behavior."
- Experimental Analysis of Behavior | Open Access Articles @Digital Commons Network™
- Archive of "Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior". - Readings
- @Wikipedia - "The experimental analysis of behavior (EAB) is school of thought in psychology founded on B. F. Skinner's philosophy of radical behaviorism and defines the basic principles used in applied behavior analysis (ABA). A central principle was the inductive, data-driven[1] examination of functional relations, as opposed to the kinds of hypothetico-deductive learning theory[2] that had grown up in the comparative psychology of the 1920–1950 period. Skinner's approach was characterized by empirical observation of measurable behavior which could be predicted and controlled. It owed its early success to the effectiveness of Skinner's procedures of operant conditioning, both in the laboratory and in behavior therapy."
- What is the experimental analysis of behavior? @ NCBI
Motivating operation
- Motivating operation @ Wikipedia - “Motivating operation (MO) is a concept in behaviorism used to explain the momentary effectiveness of consequences in operant conditioning. The term "motivating operation" was developed because MOs account for conditions that either increase or decrease the effectiveness of a consequence as a reinforcer or punisher. Motivating operations affect whether a person wants or does not want a stimulus at a given moment, which helps explain an organism's behavior at that point in time.”
- Motivating operation @ Open Access articles - “Motivating operation (MO) is a concept in behaviorism used to explain the momentary effectiveness of consequences in operant conditioning. The term "motivating operation" was developed because MOs account for conditions that either increase or decrease the effectiveness of a consequence as a reinforcer or punisher. Motivating operations affect whether a person wants or does not want a stimulus at a given moment, which helps explain an organism's behavior at that point in time.”
- The Motivating Operation and Negatively Reinforced Problem Behavior @ Sage Pub - “The concept of motivational operations exerts an increasing influence on the understanding and assessment of problem behavior in people with intellectual and developmental disability. In this systematic review of 59 methodologically robust studies of the influence of motivational operations in negative reinforcement paradigms in this population, we identify themes related to situational and biological variables that have implications for assessment, intervention, and further research. There is now good evidence that motivational operations of differing origins influence negatively reinforced problem behavior, and that these might be subject to manipulation to facilitate favorable outcomes. There is also good evidence that some biological variables warrant consideration in assessment procedures as they predispose the person’s behavior to be influenced by specific motivational operations. The implications for assessment and intervention are made explicit with reference to variables that are open to manipulation or that require further research and conceptualization within causal models.”
- Motivating Operations @ Applied Behavioral Strategies - “example. In a 4-term contingency that includes motivating operations (MO, also understood as internal motivations), “thirst” serves as an MO. That is, in the presence of water (Sd), given “thirst” as a precondition (MO), a person will drink the water (response) because the value of slaking his thirst is pretty high (Sr+). On the other hand, if I’m feeling pretty hydrated, I likely won’t drink water (‘response’) even when it is present (‘Sd’) because the value to me (Sr+) is diminished at that time.”
- On the Distinction Between the Motivating Operation and Setting Event Concepts @ Research Gate - “Abstract In recent decades, behavior analysts have generally used two differentconcepts to speak about motivational influences on operant contingencies: setting eventand motivating operation. Although both concepts still appear in the contemporarybehavior-analytic literature and were designed to address the same antecedent phenomena,the concepts are quite different. The purpose of the present article is to describe anddistinguish the concepts and to illustrate their current usage”
- “Motivating Operations @ Applied Behavior Analysis - “EO: Steven's favorite snack is Skittles. His teacher recognizes this and will sometimes motivate Steven by giving him a Skittle after following a direction. There is an assembly at the end of the day and Steven's teacher needs for him to sit down for the entire event and she plans on rewarding Steven with a Skittle if he does. In order to increase the effectiveness of Skittles, Steven's teacher does not give him the candy all day leading up to the assembly (deprivation state). As a result, Steven is more likely to sit for the entire assembly in order to receive a Skittle because he has been deprived of them all day, hence increasing their effectiveness.”
- Cooper Ch 16: Motivating Operations Flashcards@ Quizlet
- Motivating Operations @ Prenhall - “Motivating operations (MOs) can be classified into two types: unconditioned motivating operations (UMOs) and conditioned motivating operations (CMOs). UMOs are motivating operations that have value-altering effects that are unlearned, or those with which the organism has no prior learning history. UMOs for humans include deprivation and satiation UMOs, UMOs relevant to sexual reinforcement, temperature changes, and painful stimulation. CMOs are motivating operations with value-altering effects that are learned, or are a result of the organism’s learning history. They can be classified into three types: surrogate (CMO-S), reflexive (CMO-R), and transitive (CMO-T). Despite the different categories of conditioned motivating operations, all are motivationally neutral prior to either the pairing with another already established motivating operation or a form of reinforcement or punishment.”
- A Tutorial on the Concept of the Motivating Operation and its Importance to Application @ NCBI - “Motivating operations (MOs) exert a powerful influence over operant relations and hold significant implications for those working in applied settings. In this paper, we describe the concept of the MO and provide “real world” examples. Particular emphasis is given to the concept of the conditioned MO (CMO). Implications for intervention are discussed. It is hoped that this endeavour will encourage the utilization of the full conceptual system of the MO.
Law of effect
- The law of effect is a psychological principle advanced by Edward Thorndike in 1905 on the matter of behavioral conditioning (not yet formulated as such) which states that "responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation."This notion is very similar to that of the evolutionary theory, if a certain character trait provides an advantage for reproduction then that trait will persist. The terms "satisfying" and dissatisfying" appearing in the definition of the law of effect were eventually replaced by the terms "reinforcing" and "punishing," when operant conditioning became known. "Satisfying" and "dissatisfying" conditions are determined behaviorally, and they cannot be accurately predicted, because each animal has a different idea of these two terms than another animal." - Wikipedia
- Edward L. Thorndike | American psychologist | Britannica.com
- Thorndike - Law of Effect - YouTube
- Law of Effect definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com
- What Is the Law of Effect in Psychology? @ Very Well - “The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that responses closely followed by satisfaction will become firmly attached to the situation and, therefore, more likely to reoccur when the situation is repeated. Conversely, if the situation is followed by discomfort, the connections to the situation will become weaker, and the behavior of response is less likely to occur when the situation is repeated.Imagine that you arrive early to work one day by accident. Your boss notices and praises your diligence. The praise makes you feel good, so it reinforces the behavior. “
- Edward Thorndike - Law of Effect | Simply Psychology
- Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning: Thorndike's Law of Effect - @Boundless - The law of effect is at work in every human behavior as well. From a young age, we learn which actions are beneficial and which are detrimental through a similar trial and error process.While the law of effect explains behavior from an external, observable point of view, it does not account for internal, unobservable processes that also affect the behavior patterns of human beings.
- Thorndike's law of effect | psychology | Britannica.com
- aw of Effect - Edward Thorndike, Operant Conditioning, Thorndike, and Outcomes - JRank Articles
- Law of Effect (Thorndike) - YouTube
About/Info
- Famous Psychologists - B.F. Skinner @ Psychologist Anywhere Anytime. - "Skinner conducted research on shaping behavior through positive and negative reinforcement and demonstrated operant conditioning, a behavior modification technique which he developed in contrast with classical conditioning. His idea of the behavior modification technique was to put the subject on a program with steps. The steps would be setting goals which would help you determine how the subject would be changed by following the steps. The program design is designing a program that will help the subject to reach the desired state. Then implementation and evaluation which is putting the program to use and then evaluating the effectiveness of it."
- "Radical behaviorism, or the conceptual analysis of behavior, was pioneered by B. F. Skinner and is his "philosophy of the science of behavior." It refers to the school of psychology known as behavior analysis, and is distinguished from methodological behaviorism—which has an intense emphasis on observable behaviors—by its inclusion of thoughts, emotions, and other internal mental activity in the analysis and theorizing of human and animal psychology. The research in radical behaviorism is called the experimental analysis of behavior and the application of this field is called applied behavior analysis (ABA)." - Wikipedia
- Behaviorism | What It Is & How It Works | Psychology - "One of the major benefits of behaviorism is that it allowed researchers to investigate observable behavior in a scientific and systematic manner. However, it many thinkers believed that it fell short by neglecting some important influences on behavior. Freud, for example, felt that behaviorism failed by not accounting for the unconscious mind's thoughts, feelings, and desires that exert an influence on people's actions. Other thinkers like Carl Rogers and the other humanistic psychologists believed that behaviorism was too rigid and limited, failing to take into consideration things like free will."
- web.cortland.edu/andersmd/BEH/BEHAVIOR.HTML - "Behaviorists assume that the only things that are real (or at leastworth studying) are the things we can see and observe. We cannot see the mind ,the id, or the unconscious, but we can see how people act, react and behave. From behavior we may be able to make inferences about the minds and the brain,but they are not the primary focus of the investigation. What people do,not what they think or feel, is the object of the study. Likewise the behaviorist does not look to the mind or the brain to understandthe causes of abnormal behavior. He assumes that the behavior representscertain learned habits, and he attempts to determine how they are learned."
- Behavioral Perspectives on the Neuroscience of Drug Addiction - "Neuroscientific approaches to drug addiction traditionally have been based on the premise that addiction is a process that results from brain changes that in turn result from chronic administration of drugs of abuse. An alternative approach views drug addiction as a behavioral disorder in which drugs function as preeminent reinforcers. Although there is a fundamental discrepancy between these two approaches, the emerging neuroscience of reinforcement and choice behavior eventually may shed light on the brain mechanisms involved in excessive drug use. Behavioral scientists could assist in this understanding by devoting more attention to the assessment of differences in the reinforcing strength of drugs and by attempting to develop and validate behavioral models of addiction."
- Behavioral Psychology
- Behavioral, Cognitive, Developmental, Social Cognitive & Constructivist Perspectives - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
May be of interest : Behavioural Ecology
About / Info
- The Evolution of Depression @ Virginia Magazine
- An Evolutionary Perspective on Anxiety and Anxiety Disorders by John Scott Price @ InTechOpen
- "Evolutionary psychology (EP) is a theoretical approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological structure from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations – that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection in human evolution. Adaptationist thinking about physiological mechanisms, such as the heart, lungs, and immune system, is common in evolutionary biology. Some evolutionary psychologists apply the same thinking to psychology, arguing that the modularity of mind is similar to that of the body and with different modular adaptations serving different functions. Evolutionary psychologists argue that much of human behavior is the output of psychological adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments." - Wikipedia
- Evolutionary Psychology
- Evolutionary psychology - "In short, evolutionary psychology is focused on how evolution has shaped the mind and behavior.Though applicable to any organism with a nervous system, most research in evolutionary psychology focuses on humans.Evolutionary Psychology proposes that the human brain comprises many functional mechanisms, called psychological adaptations or evolved cognitive mechanisms designed by the process of natural selection.Examples include language acquisition modules, incest avoidance mechanisms, cheater detection mechanisms, intelligence and sex-specific mating preferences, foraging mechanisms, alliance-tracking mechanisms, agent detection mechanisms, and so on."
- 4.4 Psychological Perspective
- Evolutionary Psychology (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) - "Influential evolutionary psychologists, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby, provide the following list of the field's theoretical tenets (2005):The brain is a computer designed by natural selection to extract information from the environment.Individual human behavior is generated by this evolved computer in response to information it extracts from the environment. Understanding behavior requires articulating the cognitive programs that generate the behavior.The cognitive programs of the human brain are adaptations. They exist because they produced behavior in our ancestors that enabled them to survive and reproduce.The cognitive programs of the human brain may not be adaptive now; they were adaptive in ancestral environments.Natural selection ensures that the brain is composed of many different special purpose programs and not a domain general architecture.Describing the evolved computational architecture of our brains “allows a systematic understanding of cultural and social phenomena”
- Evolutionary Psychology | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - "In its broad sense, the term "evolutionary psychology" stands for any attempt to adopt an evolutionary perspective on human behavior by supplementing psychology with the central tenets of evolutionary biology. The underlying idea is that since our mind is the way it is at least in part because of our evolutionary past, evolutionary theory can aid our understanding not only of the human body, but also of the human mind. In this broad sense, evolutionary psychology is a general field of inquiry that includes such diverse approaches as human behavioral ecology, memetics, dual-inheritance theory, and Evolutionary Psychology in the narrow sense."
- What is Evolutionary Psycholgy? - "These areas of the brain have been given a variety of names:evolved cognitive structures;
evolved psychological mechanism; special learning mechanisms; psychological mechanism devices; mental mechanism devices; functionally specialized computational devices; and Darwinian algorithmic mechanisms" - The Evolutionary Approach in Psychology | Knowing Ourselves - "There are three requirements that must be met in order for evolution in the average expression of a characteristic to occur through natural selection: There must be individual differences in the expression of the characteristic.These individual differences must be associated with genetic differences.
The increased reproductive success of individuals with particular expressions of the characteristic must remain stable over generations."
adaptive rumination hypothesis
- Depression's evolutionary roots @ Less Wrong - “The idea is a variation on one that's somewhat popular here: that some conditions usually regarded as mental illnesses (Asperger's for example) are beneficial, even adaptive. But the condition in question now is depression. Briefly, the argument is that depression, at least when it is a response to stimuli and not a permanent feature, can have the useful effect of encouraging more rational thought when this is particularly important, even at the cost of quality of life, and that this is adaptive.”
- Is Depression an Adaptation? @ Big Think - “In summary, we hypothesize that depression is a stress response mechanism (a) that is triggered by analytically difficult problems that influence important fitness-related goals; (b) that coordinates changes in body systems to promote sustained analysis of the triggering problem, otherwise known as depressive rumination; (c) that helps people generate and evaluate potential solutions to the triggering problem; and (d) that makes trade-offs with other goals to promote analysis of the triggering problem, including reduced accuracy on laboratory tasks. Collectively, we refer to this suite of claims as the analytical rumination hypothesis. [Psychological Review, 2009]”
- Depression’s Upside @ The New York Times -“Andrews and Thomson struck up an extended conversation on the evolutionary roots of depression. They began by focusing on the thought process that defines the disorder, which is known as rumination. (The verb is derived from the Latin word for “chewed over,” which describes the act of digestion in cattle, in which they swallow, regurgitate and then rechew their food.) In recent decades, psychiatry has come to see rumination as a dangerous mental habit, because it leads people to fixate on their flaws and problems, thus extending their negative moods"
- Depression’s Upside @ The New York Times - “The Depressed Person,” a short story by David Foster Wallace, which chronicles a consciousness in the grip of the ruminative cycle. (Wallace struggled with severe depression for years before committing suicide in 2008.) The story is a long lament, a portrait of a mind hating itself, filled with sentences like this: “What terms might be used to describe such a solipsistic, self-consumed, bottomless emotional vacuum and sponge as she now appeared to herself to be?” The dark thoughts of “The Depressed Person” soon grow tedious and trying, but that’s precisely Wallace’s point. There is nothing profound about depressive rumination. There is just a recursive loop of woe.....While such thoughts reinforce the depression — that’s why therapists try to stop the ruminative cycle — Andrews and Thomson wondered if they might also help people prepare for bachelorhood or allow people to learn from their mistakes. ‘I started thinking about how, even if you are depressed for a few months, the depression might be worth it if it helps you better understand social relationships,’ Andrews says. ‘Maybe you realize you need to be less rigid or more loving. Those are insights that can come out of depression, and they can be very valuable.’ This radical idea — the scientists were suggesting that depressive disorder came with a net mental benefit — has a long intellectual history.”
Infection
- Depression: Evolutionary byproduct of the ability to fight infection? | Norton School Family and Consumer Sciences
- Evolutionary approaches to depression - Wikipedia - “Depression further prevents infection by discouraging social interactions and activities that may result in exchange of infections. For example, the loss of interest discourages one from engaging in sexual activity, which, in turn, prevents the exchange of sexually transmitted diseases. Similarly, depressed mothers may interact less with their children, reducing the probability of the mother infecting her kin.”
- Why Did Depression Evolve? It May Have A "Purpose" After All - “The answer, the authors argue, is that the genes that are linked to depression are also involved in our immune system function. Fighting off infection was a frequent pastime of our ancestors, and a leading cause of death. People who had the genes for depression, the argument goes, were better infection-fighters because depression-like symptoms are conducive to infection-fighting.”
Psychic pain hypothesis
- @ Wikipedia “According to the psychic pain hypothesis, depression is analogous to physical pain in that it informs the sufferer that current circumstances, such as the loss of a friend, are imposing a threat to biological fitness. It motivates the sufferer to cease activities that led to the costly situation, if possible, and it causes him or her to learn to avoid similar circumstances in the future.”
- A similar theory to the psychic pain hypothesis @ University of David - “A similar theory to the psychic pain hypothesis. If an organism faces more risk or expenditure than reward from activities, the best evolutionary strategy may be to withdraw from them....Negative emotions like disappointment, sadness, grief, fear, anxiety, anger, and guilt are described as “evolved strategies that allow for the identification and avoidance of specific problems, especially in the social domain.” “
Behavioral shutdown model
- @ Wikipedia - “The behavioral shutdown model states that if an organism faces more risk or expenditure than reward from activities, the best evolutionary strategy may be to withdraw from them. This model proposes that emotional pain, like physical pain, serves a useful adaptive purpose. Negative emotions like disappointment, sadness, grief, fear, anxiety, anger, and guilt are described as "evolved strategies that allow for the identification and avoidance of specific problems, especially in the social domain.”
- Depression: Disease or behavioral shutdown mechanism? @Research Gate - “To understand how depression might be functional in an evolutionary sense, it is useful to first consider the evolutionary significance of pain. To effectively solve problems in its environment, an organism must have mechanisms that allow it to approach situations that are beneficial and avoid situations that are harmful. Pleasure can be thought of as the signal to approach and pain the signal to avoid. Although pain is almost always unwanted, the capacity to experience physical pain is immensely important.....volutionarily informed theorists now recognize that emotional pain serves a very important function, similar to that of physical pain (e.g., Johnson, 1999). Whereas physical pain signals problems with the structural integrity of the body, emotional pain signals problems with how the individual is interacting with some aspect of his or her environment, usually the social environment (Price, 1998)”
- What Is Depression? @ Psychology Today - “This understanding gives rise to the Behavioral Shutdown Model (BSM) of depression, which suggests that depression arises out of an evolved tendency to decrease behavioral expenditure in response to chronic danger, stress, or consistent failure to achieve one'sgoals. Put slightly different, according to the BSM, we should think about depression as a state of behavioral shutdown. (It is worthwile to note here that the while the BSM is a psychological model, it shares many parallels with economic models of societal depressions).The BSM offers a potential explanation for many features of depression. For example, it strongly predicts that depression should be more likely to occur in situations that are chronically dangerous, humiliating, or repeatedly result in failure to achieve one's goals. “
Depression's Adaptive Payoffs @ Hangdog Revival - “Pain can be sentry and sensei. It can protect and instruct, clue you in as it’s laying you out.....But according to Thomson and Andrews, even depression’s well-known cognitive deficits might sometimes serve an adaptive purpose. Rumination shunts so much of the mind’s voltage off to power analysis of gnarly life problems that’s there’s scant intelligence left over for anything else.”
Measuring the Bright Side of Being Blue: A New Tool for Assessing Analytical Rumination in Depression @ PLOS - “However, there is debate that some interventions may pathologize normal, adaptive responses to stressors. Analytical rumination (AR) is an example of an adaptive response of depression that is characterized by enhanced cognitive function to help an individual focus on, analyze, and solve problems.”
Analytical rumination hypothesis / Dr. Simon Moss @ Sicotests - “Depression can both enhance analytical reasoning as well as undermine cognitive performance.The various procedures to endure states of depression or dejection--as well as pre existing depression--can either enhance or disrupt accuracy on cognitive tasks.Antidepressants enhance performance in individuals who are depressed but impede performance in individuals who are not depressed.In contrast to momentary disruptions of rumination, more enduring disruptions to rumination often prolong depressive episodes.To resolve these paradoxes, the analytical rumination hypothesis assumes, and then substantiates tentatively, several propositions. First, depression is incited by complex problems, often in the social domain, which demand careful analysis and planning. Second, depression induces a variety or biological changes that enable individuals to maintain their attention on this complex problem, resisting possible distractions. Third, the depressive state elicits rumination and related cognitive processes, all of which facilitate the resolution of the target problem. Fourth, depression often impairs performance in laboratory settings, merely because attention is allotted to complex, personal problems rather than contrived activities.”
Measuring the Bright Side of Being Blue: A New Tool for Assessing Analytical Rumination in Depression @ PLOS - “However, there is debate that some interventions may pathologize normal, adaptive responses to stressors. Analytical rumination (AR) is an example of an adaptive response of depression that is characterized by enhanced cognitive function to help an individual focus on, analyze, and solve problems.”
Analytical rumination hypothesis / Dr. Simon Moss @ Sicotests - “Depression can both enhance analytical reasoning as well as undermine cognitive performance.The various procedures to endure states of depression or dejection--as well as pre existing depression--can either enhance or disrupt accuracy on cognitive tasks.Antidepressants enhance performance in individuals who are depressed but impede performance in individuals who are not depressed.In contrast to momentary disruptions of rumination, more enduring disruptions to rumination often prolong depressive episodes.To resolve these paradoxes, the analytical rumination hypothesis assumes, and then substantiates tentatively, several propositions. First, depression is incited by complex problems, often in the social domain, which demand careful analysis and planning. Second, depression induces a variety or biological changes that enable individuals to maintain their attention on this complex problem, resisting possible distractions. Third, the depressive state elicits rumination and related cognitive processes, all of which facilitate the resolution of the target problem. Fourth, depression often impairs performance in laboratory settings, merely because attention is allotted to complex, personal problems rather than contrived activities.”
Honest signaling theory
- @ Found Health - “Maintains that the exhibited symptoms of depression, such as crying and loss of appetite or activity engagement, signaled to others in the community that the sufferer needed support.”
- @ Wikipedia - The symptoms of major depression, such as loss of interest in virtually all activities and suicidality, are inherently costly, but, as costly signaling theory requires, the costs differ for individuals in different states. For individuals who are not genuinely in need, the fitness cost of major depression is very high because it threatens the flow of fitness benefits. For individuals who are in genuine need, however, the fitness cost of major depression is low, because the individual is not generating many fitness benefits. Thus, only an individual in genuine need can afford to suffer major depression. Major depression therefore serves as an honest, or credible, signal of need.”
Social risk hypothesis
- Evolution and social anxiety: The role of attraction, social competition, and social hierarchies @ Research Gate - “ Social anxiety, like shame, can be adaptive to the extent that it helps people to "stay on track" with what is socially acceptable and what is not and could result in social sanction and exclusion. However, dysfunctional social anxiety is the result of activation of basic defensive mechanisms (and modules for) for threat detection and response (e.g., inhibition, eye-gaze avoidance, flight, or submission) that can be recruited rapidly for dealing with immediate threats, override conscious wishes, and interfere with being seen as a "useful associate.
- The social risk hypothesis of depressed mood: evolutionary, psychosocial, and neurobiological perspectives. @ NCBI - “The authors hypothesize that depressed states evolved to minimize risk in social interactions in which individuals perceive that the ratio of their social value to others, and their social burden on others, is at a critically low level. When this ratio reaches a point where social value and social burden are approaching equivalence, the individual is in danger of exclusion from social contexts that, over the course of evolution, have been critical to fitness. Many features of depressed states can be understood in relation to mechanisms that reduce social risk in such circumstances, including (a) hyper-sensitivity to signals of social threat from others, (b) sending signals to others that reduce social risks, and (c) inhibiting risk-seeking (e.g., confident, acquisitive) behaviors. These features are discussed in terms of psychosocial and neurobiological research on depressive phenomena.”
- Social risk and depression: Evidence from manual and automatic facial expression analysis @ Semantic Scholar - “According to this hypothesis, when symptoms are severe, depressed participants withdraw from other people in order to protect themselves from anticipated rejection, scorn, and social exclusion. As their symptoms fade, participants send more signals indicating a willingness to affiliate. “
- Social risk and depression: Evidence from manual and automatic facial expression analysis @ IEEE - “According to this hypothesis, when symptoms are severe, depressed participants withdraw from other people in order to protect themselves from anticipated rejection, scorn, and social exclusion. As their symptoms fade, participants send more signals indicating a willingness to affiliate. The finding that automatic facial expression analysis was both consistent with manual coding and produced the same pattern of depression effects suggests that automatic facial expression analysis may be ready for use in behavioral and clinical science.”
- Testing the Social Risk Hypothesis Model of Depression by Dunn, Joshua - “The social risk hypothesis suggests that mild to moderate depression has evolved to promote belonging in small communities by making members sensitive to signs of rejection and motivated to restore their social value”
- 102. the Social Risk Hypothesis of Depressed Mood Evolutionary, Psychosocial, And Neurobiological Perspectives. - “The authors hypothesize that depressed states evolved to minimize risk in social interactions in which individuals perceive that the ratio of their social value to others, and their social burden on others, is at a critically low level. When this ratio reaches a point where social value and social burden are approaching equivalence, the individual is in danger of exclusion from social contexts that, over the course of evolution, have been critical to fitness. Many features of depressed states can be understood in relation to mechanisms that reduce social risk in such circumstances, including (a) hypersensitivity to signals of social threat from others, (b) sending signals to others that reduce social risks, and (c) inhibiting risk-seeking (e.g., confident, acquisitive) behaviors. These features are discussed in terms of psychosocial and neurobiological research on depressive phenomena.”
- Retreating to safety: testing the social risk hypothesis model of depression @ Evolution and Human Behavior - “The Social risk hypothesis contends that mild to moderate depression has evolved to promote belonging in small communities by making members sensitive to signs of rejection and motivated to restore their social value ( Allen & Badcock, 2003 ). Using self-report data from 397 working adults, structural equation modeling examined the relationships between secure attachment, social comparison, defeat, depression, submissive behaviors, interpersonal sensitivity, and self-esteem. The analysis provided empirical support for an evolved adaptive mechanism functioning in mild to moderate depression. However, the moderating impact of social investment potential as an internal gauge measuring one's ratio of social value and social burden was only partially supported. Overall, the results of this study support the adaptive nature of mild to moderate depression as a mechanism that evolved to help sustain crucial restorative relationships and to prevent dangerous social risks.”
Rank theory
- Evolution and social anxiety: The role of attraction, social competition, and social hierarchies @ Research Gate - “ Social anxiety, like shame, can be adaptive to the extent that it helps people to "stay on track" with what is socially acceptable and what is not and could result in social sanction and exclusion. However, dysfunctional social anxiety is the result of activation of basic defensive mechanisms (and modules for) for threat detection and response (e.g., inhibition, eye-gaze avoidance, flight, or submission) that can be recruited rapidly for dealing with immediate threats, override conscious wishes, and interfere with being seen as a "useful associate.”
- The Origins of Anxiety @ World of Psychology - “Kahn speculates that our ancestors had a biologically based social hierarchy. Today, our society has a clear-cut structure. (Work is a good example of a hierarchy, with managers, bosses and higher-ups.) But our ancestors did not. Having a biologically determined hierarchy kept our ancestors in line and tempered competition.”
- @ Wikipedia - “Rank theory is an evolutionary theory of depression, developed by Anthony Stevens and John Price, and proposes that depression promotes the survival of genes. Depression is an adaptive response to losing status (rank) and losing confidence in the ability to regain it”
- Depression: rank theory @ Huxley
- Neuroimaging Evidence for Social Rank Theory @ NCBI - “An empirical question emerges: what are the underlying neural mechanisms orchestrating social rank responses? An evolutionary perspective suggests that if social rank theory applies to modern human behavior, there may be evidence of relevant neural activation to facilitate these processes. Levitan et al. (2000) theorizes that a neural circuit linking limbic, prefrontal cortex, and striatal structures reflect the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components of rank-related social interactions. Recent investigations examining the structure and function of brain areas associated with social rank offers preliminary support for this neural mechanism of a human social rank system.”
third ventricle hypothesis
- The Third Ventricle Hypothesis of depression | The Third Ventricle Hypothesis of depression - “Ethological perspective: The behavioural cluster associated with depression includes hunched posture and avoidance of eye contact (which are primarily defensive), lack of appetites for food and sex (which reduce the need to compete for these resources) plus social withdrawal and sleep disturbance (which reduce the probability of engaging in potentially damaging social contact). This cluster together serves to reduce an individual’s attack provoking stimuli in a hostile social environment.”
- Evolutionary approaches to depression - Wikipedia - “The third ventricle hypothesis of depression proposes that the behavioural cluster associated with depression (hunched posture, avoidance of eye contact, reduced appetites for food and sex plus social withdrawal and sleep disturbance) serves to reduce an individual's attack-provoking stimuli within the context of a chronically hostile social environment”
- Depression: An Evolutionary Adaptation Organised Around the Third Ventricle by Colin Hendrie @ Academia.edu
- Evolutionary approaches to depression | Wiki | 📖 Everipedia, the encyclopedia of everything Biology of depression - Wikipedia
hyper vigilant / Perceived threats
- Evolution and Anxiety @ Very Well - “People with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) could have a predisposition to experience greater levels of anxiety that again in previous forms of human life were advantageous. Essentially, GAD can be seen as an over-reaction to the fear response in modern society. As modern society has created a place for more people to be evolutionarily successful, this chronic anxiety becomes a burden and seen as an obstacle. Seeking treatment for GAD can certainly be helpful in this, but know that you are likely carrying the genes of your ancestors who found some advantage in them that allowed you to be here today.”
- Evolution of anxiety: Humans were prey for predators such as hyenas, snakes, sharks, kangaroos. @ Slate - “In those few places where large predators are still common, primates, especially cute baby ones, are eaten with great frequency and alacrity. When our species evolved, human children were special only in as much as their hairlessness made them slightly easier to digest. Even today, where humans live alongside predators, both children and adults get eaten. Harry Greene, a herpetologist at Cornell University and one of a handful of my colleagues more likely to be eaten by a wild animal than to die of old age, and Thomas Headland, an anthropologist, recently conducted a study of Agta hunter-gatherers in the Philippines. Harry was excited to find that the Agta lived among a high density of pythons. The Agta tend to be not quite so excited; Greene and Headland found that one in four Agta men had been attacked by a reticulated python. Of the 120 men whose stories were considered for the study, six had been killed by a python. That’s a death-by-python rate of 1 in 20. Those are lousy odds, but most of us have escaped such risks by living in houses and cities and living where our ancestors killed off the most dangerous predators, be they tigers, cave bears, or giant, carnivorous kangaroos. We should be grateful for having escaped—and yet we haven’t really escaped, because our bodies are burdened by our long history of trying to get away.”
- @ Wikipedia - “An evolutionary psychology explanation is that increased anxiety serves the purpose of increased vigilance regarding potential threats in the environment as well as increased tendency to take proactive actions regarding such possible threats. This may cause false positive reactions but an individual suffering from anxiety may also avoid real threats. This may explain why anxious people are less likely to die due to accidents.”
- 5 - The evolution and manifestation of social anxiety - University Publishing Online - “First, consider the appraisal of threat. Non-social threat is conveyed largely through sensory information from sources such as smells, sudden sounds, or movements, and there may be little in the way of detailed cognitive processing. That is, there is a largely automatic component to these kinds of fear responses. Generally, however, social threats are not conveyed by sensory information, although scent marking of territory may be an exception to this rule, in that some animals show anxiety on entering another animal's territory (Marks, 1987). Social anxiety, on the other hand, at least in the higher mammals, depends on decoding complex social signals that require more detailed, less automatic, cognitive processing (Leventhal & Scherer, 1987; Ohman, 1986).”
- The Evolution of Anxiety @ Live Science - “Nesse is a Darwinian psychiatrist interested in applying evolutionary theory to traditional views of mental illness. Instead of calling mood disorders such as anxiety or depression “illnesses,” he believes there might be good evolutionary reasons for feeling blue or scared; these feelings are not necessarily diseases or disorders, but adaptations....Fear in a space ship also has evolutionary roots. Anxiety is an extended version of the fight–or-flight response which evolved to keep us alive; an animal without fear is a dead animal. But humans have a penchant for dragging the fight-or-flight response into every situation and holding onto it until we are sick.What helps, Nesse claims, is realizing anxiety is not necessarily a bad thing but a good thing, because anxiety attacks often keeps us from certain unpleasant situations. “
- Anxiety: An Evolutionary Approach by Daniel Nettle @ Academia.edu - “We have outlined a simple functional framework for understanding human anxiety and homologous responsesin other species. An individual’s threshold for mounting athreat response ought to be sensitive to the likelihood of badthings happening in the environment (probability), and theindividual’s ability to cope if they do happen (vulnerability).If either increases, the individual anxiety response should be more easily triggered, and should therefore produce a greater number of false alarms. Epidemiologic patterns of anxiety symptoms can be interpreted within this framework,and existing treatments for anxiety disorders can be understood as reducing the patient’s appraisal of either their probability or vulnerability”
paleomammalian and reptilian forebrains
- Evolutionary aspects of anxiety disorders @ NCBI - "Danger and harm are avoided by strategic decisions made at all three levels of the triune forebrain: rational (neomammalian), emotional (paleomammalian), and instinctive (reptilian). This applies also to potential harm from conspecifics, which leads to a choice between escalating and de-escalating strategies. Anxiety is a component of de-escalating strategies mediated by the paleomammalian and reptilian forebrains. When the neomammalian (rational) brain fails to deal with the threat of conspecific danger, these more primitive de-escalating strategies may be activated and may present as anxiety disorders. The capacity for concealment of anxiety and other forms of negative affect has also evolved, and excessive concealment may lead to psychopaihology by breaking the negative feedback loop of excessive motivation, leading to impaired performance, leading to signals of distress, and leading to reduced exhortation to succeed on the part of parents and teachers; this situation is illustrated by a model based on the Yerkes-Dodson law."
Immediate Return Environment & Delayed Return Environment hypothesis
- Immediate Return vs. Delayed Return Societies - P2P Foundation -
- The Evolution of Anxiety: Why We Worry @ James Clear (dot) com - “Unfortunately, living in a Delayed Return Environment tends to lead to chronic stress and anxiety for humans. Why? Because your brain wasn’t designed to solve the problems of a Delayed Return Environment.” // The Evolution of Anxiety: Why We Worry and What to Do About It @ Life Hacker
Evolutionary Intuition
- Evolutionary Intuition online course - Becky Walsh - YouTube
- Article 26- Intuition from Instinct
- Your Evolved Intuitions - Less Wrong
- Intuition and logic in human evolution
- The Evolution of Intuition - Watkins MIND BODY SPIRIT Magazine
- Kajabi Next - Evolutionary intuition. The four Intuitive systems - Buy Now
- Intuition, deliberation, and the evolution of cooperation
- Belief in Evolution Boils Down to a Gut Feeling | Intuition | Evolution & Religion
- First Intelligence -Evolutionary Intuition Audio Program « Simone Wright ~ Evolving Beyond Life as Usual
- Evolutionary intuition - The four intuitive systems webinar - YouTube
Nasty neighbour effect
- Nasty neighbour effect - Wikipedia - “In ethology, the nasty neighbour effect describes the phenomenon whereby territory-holding animals behave more strongly toward familiar conspecific neighbours than to unfamiliar conspecifics. This phenomenon may be generally advantageous to an animal because the heightened response reduces the likelihood of a nearby intruder entering the territory and taking the resources it contains whereas an unfamiliar or distant territory-holder poses less of a threat. This reduced response minimises the time, energy and risk of injury incurred during territorial encounters with animals which are less of a threat to the territory holder. The nasty neighbour effect is the converse of the dear enemy effect in which some species are less aggressive towards their neighbours than towards unfamiliar strangers.”
- ‘Nasty neighbour’effect in Formica pratensis Retz.(Hymenoptera: Formicidae) (PDF Download Available) - “ Our results showed that the Formica pratensis population from Fanatele Clujului is monodomous. Workers from first neighbours' nests were more aggressive than those from second neighbours and non-neighbours colonies.”
- ‘Nasty neighbours’ rather than ‘dear enemies’ in a social carnivore | Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences - “The familiarity hypothesis predicts reduced aggression towards neighbours also in these species.”
Dear enemy effect
- Dear enemy effect - Wikipedia - “The dear enemy effect or dear enemy recognition is an ethological phenomenon in which two neighbouring territorial animals become less aggressive toward one another once territorial borders are well-established.[1] As territory owners become accustomed to their neighbours, they expend less time and energy on defensive behaviors directed toward one another. However, aggression toward unfamiliar neighbours remains the same.[2] Some authors have suggested the dear enemy effect is territory residents displaying lower levels of aggression toward familiar neighbours compared to unfamiliar individuals who are non-territorial "floaters”
- Dear Enemies Elicit Lower Androgen Responses to Territorial Challenges than Unfamiliar Intruders in a Cichlid Fish - “The dear enemy effect has also been described in territorial species and posits that resident individuals show a more aggressive response to intrusions by strangers than by other territorial neighbours. Therefore, we hypothesized that the dear enemy effect may also modulate the androgen response to a territorial intrusion”
- PLOS ONE: Dear Enemies Elicit Lower Androgen Responses to Territorial Challenges than Unfamiliar Intruders in a Cichlid Fish - “In summary, our results show for the first time that the dear enemy effect also modulates the androgen response to a social challenge, so that neighbours elicit a lower androgen response than strangers. Furthermore, this experiment along with other recent reports [8,38] suggests that the dear enemy effect is a flexible behavioural response modulated by social context and not a fixed response to familiar and unfamiliar intruders”
- Watch "Dear Enemy Effect" Video
title 15
Social Navigation Hypothesis
- Toward a revised evolutionary adaptationist analysis of depression: the social navigation hypothesis - Journal of Affective Disorders @ JAD - “The SNH suggests that depression evolved to perform two complimentary social problem-solving functions. First, depression induces cognitive changes that focus and enhance capacities for the accurate analysis and solution of key social problems, suggesting a social rumination function. Second, the costs associated with the anhedonia and psychomotor perturbation of depression can persuade reluctant social partners to provide help or make concessions via two possible mechanism...”
- Evolutionary approaches to depression - Wikipedia - “Thus depression may be a social adaptation especially useful in motivating a variety of social partners, all at once, to help the depressive initiate major fitness-enhancing changes in their socioeconomic life. There are diverse circumstances under which this may become necessary in human social life, ranging from loss of rank or a key social ally which makes the current social niche uneconomic to having a set of creative new ideas about how to make a livelihood which begs for a new niche”
- Evolution of Major and Minor Unipolar Depression: The Social Navigation Hypothesis - “The SNH and Anti-Depressant Medications – Whether or not depression is an evolutionary adaptation does matter - its has major implications for how it can, and perhaps how it should be treated. The SNH suggests that conceptualizing unipolar depression strictly in traditional medical terms, that is by simply pathologizing it, typically fails to serve its victims well. A pharmaceutically centered approach often may be severely misguided. Talking therapies that skillfully attempt to convince the depressive that his or her thoughts and emotional states are irrational or unwarranted may also be lacking. The SNH perspective on depression may help explain why it is increasingly epidemic in modern western populations in spite of the fact that these populations are virtually awash in modern anti-depressive medication (such as the many SSRI’s) and cognitive-behavioral oriented psychotherapies. The SNH also helps us see that part of the depression epidemic may be attributable to the extreme dynamism, myriad opportunities, and onerous socioeconomic insecurities of modern social life, which generate high rates of capacity/opportunity mismatching.” *Trigger: Talks about medication therapy*
- Untitled Document - “1.If the Social Navigation Hypothesis is correct, interfering with depression should sometimes prevent improvements in a person's social situation...5.The Social Navigation Hypothesis implies that anti-depressant medications risk handicapping the client's ability to navigate and control their social environment....”
As seen in non-human animals
ZOOCHOSIS: Anxiety , Depression & self harm in non-human animals
- Crawfish, Like Humans, Are Anxious Worrywarts @Smithsonian - “The researchers determined this by subjecting captive crustaceans to a few experiments conducted in a cross-shaped aquarium. Two branches of the tank were well lit, while the other two were kept dark. Crawfish are curious creatures and are quick to explore their surroundings, but they also prefer to scuttle around in the safety of the dark. Still, the crawfish were bold: when left to their own devices, they explored the entire tank, including the well-lit arms (though they spent a bit more time in the dark).”
Survival of the fittest / Self-preservation
Fear of the unknown / Fear conditioning
While fear is the subconscious telling you to be afraid of something and society tells you it is irrational or because of low self-esteem there may very well be a good,logical, biological reason for your fear. Our ancestors had to protect themselves if they wanted to provide for their family and preserve their namesake. It is no different today. This world is dangerous, and as humans we want to live a long life and thrive. To do so, we must defend ourselves against anything that may harm us or be unnecessary to our life. it seems that depression, anxiety, fear of abandonment and even borderline personality disorder has evolutionary benefits.
Higher IQ, wanting sex more (increasing chances of procreation) or no desire to have sex (decreasing overpopulation)
People forget that although many people are unselfish and love others, our biological need for self-preservation still exists in all of us.
Higher IQ, wanting sex more (increasing chances of procreation) or no desire to have sex (decreasing overpopulation)
People forget that although many people are unselfish and love others, our biological need for self-preservation still exists in all of us.
- Fear of the Unknown and How the Mind Works Written by listed counsellor/psychotherapist: Angela Percival MBACP Accredite - "When we are experiencing factors in life that are unknown, especially issues around security, this can trigger survival instincts and the 'flight or fight' responses. If we are not sure that we are secure in the world, the fear can be intense - for example, if we have lost our job and aren't sure how we will pay our bills. Even if the change is positive, like getting married, we can still feel elements of fear as we are fundamentally making a change and the consequences of that change are as yet unknown to us."
- @DIYSect - "The third episode of the DIYSECT web-series highlights discussions surrounding the emerging field of transgenics, and the artist and scientists who are provoking them. Synthetic Biology is making its way into the consumer market, evidenced by the Kickstarter-funded Glowing Plants project. This has created a backlash with technology watchdog groups like the ETC, who fear its release will have damaging effects on the environment. The episode also features artist Adam Zaretsky who uses performance to push the boundaries on what is commonly perceived as frightening and disgusting to the public in biotechnological advancements. His work takes advantage of its controversial nature to propel a wider discussion on what is ethical in the field of synthetic biology. The episode also looks at the public’s relationship with genetically modified organisms, and how corporate manipulation has created general mistrust in the public sphere."
- Fear of the Unknown: How Can I Overcome It? BY MARK PERRY @ Health Guidance - "If you can relate to the above symptoms of fear, you would be glad to know that you can get rid of the fear of the unknown by incorporating some simple changes in your life. The basic step involved in fighting the fear is to educate oneself about the fear and then confront it, rather than avoiding it. Remember, the fear of the unknown can make way into your life through various different sources. While some individuals worry about their new job, new relationship etc, there are others who fear about their body weight, public appearance and so on."
- Why are people afraid of the 'unknown' ? @ Research Gate
- Fear of the unknown @ 2KnowMyself - "Studies found that we can feel afraid on the unconscious level. In other words you might be afraid of the unknown just because there is something that you are afraid of but not fully aware of it.For example, people who worry often might fear the unknown. While they might be thinking that they are afraid of something that doesn't exist the truth is that their unconscious minds are just reflecting their worries."
- Quotes about Fear of the Unknown @ GoodReads
- Fear of the Unknown Phobia – Xenophobia - Fear of something that is strange to us It can also be used as a fear of strangers, but people use it along racism, but that is not the meaning that we are using here."The fear of unknown is also evolutionary in that; man has always felt insecure about something which he is unaware of. Most people do not like change. In case of Xenophobia, the individual is unable to fight his insecurity. S/he simply cannot cope with being unable to experience stability and security."
Flight or fight
Scared of taking risks
Being "exposed" / vulnerability
familiarity is safe.
ADAPTATION
- @Wikipedia - “also called an adaptive trait, is a trait with a current functional role in the life of an organism that is maintained and evolved by means of natural selection....1. Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats.2. Adaptedness is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.3. An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.”
- adaptation @ National Geographic Society - “An adaptation is a mutation, or genetic change, that helps an organism, such as a plant or animal, survive in its environment”
- Animal Adaptations @ UEN - “As the environment changes, animals that cannot adapt die out, and only the adapted ones survive to produce babies. Because babies are usually more or less like their parents, the whole species soon contains only animals that are adapted to the new environment.”
- PLOS Biology: Adaptation to Temporally Fluctuating Environments by the Evolution of Maternal Effects
- Structural and Behavioral Adaptations @ NatureWorks - “Adaptations usually occur because a gene mutates or changes by accident! Some mutations can help an animal or plant survive better than others in the species without the mutation.”
- Adaptation @ Visionlearning - “Darwin knew that other natural historians had begun to ask similar questions during the 18th and early 19th centuries. They had begun the gradual process of figuring out that there was a special connection between organisms and the environment, a kind of fit that explained why particular structural details or patterns exist in nature. For example, why are flowers of a certain shape visited most often by certain moths while others are pollinated by bees, or why do large animals that swim well, whether they are dolphins or alligators or eels or sharks, all have long streamlined bodies?”
- Adaptation factsheet @ Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust - “An adaptation is a special skill which helps an animal to survive and do everything it needs to do. Adaptations could be physical changes to the animals body or behavioural changes in how an individual animal or a society do things in their daily lives.”
- Thinking more about depression as "adaptive" @ Serendip Studio
- How Depression Could Save Your Life @ The Daily Beast - “Despite the dark subject of his book, Rottenberg's search for the fundamental sources of depression is strangely consoling, even inspiring at points. By accounting for depression in evolutionary terms, he decisively discredits any lingering explanations of depression as a character flaw. He also achieves something equally powerful: a nuanced assessment of the ever-shifting advantages and costs of depression in various circumstances. Depression is not an experience anyone would choose, but this doesn't mean that natural selection hasn’t favored the evolution of a condition that continues to harm and benefit us all in some way.“
- Depression as a Meaningful Adaptation of Evolution @ UK Essays
Exaptations
- Evolution 101: Exaptations @ Berkeley - ”a feature that performs a function but that was not produced by natural selection for its current use.”
- @ Wikipedia - “As Darwin elaborated in the last edition of The Origin of Species,[19] many complex traits evolved from earlier traits that had served different functions. By trapping air, primitive wings would have enabled birds to efficiently regulate their temperature, in part, by lifting up their feathers when too warm. Individual animals with more of this functionality would more successfully survive and reproduce, resulting in the proliferation and intensification of the trait.”
- Exaptation: How Evolution Uses What’s Available @ Live Science -“While an exaptation is co-opted from another or no apparent use, an adaptation is constructed by natural selection for its current use, Gould and Vrba wrote. The concepts can be interrelated; they wrote that the order and arrangement of the four limbs of land-dwelling animals are exaptations to life on land, since these features originated for life in water. However, the changes to the bones and muscles to improve these limbs ability to function on land are exaptations, they wrote in the journal Paleobiology.”
- Q & A: Evolution Makes Do @ The Scientist Magazine® - “Traits that initially confer a selective advantage often later become beneficial in some unrelated—and often surprising—way.”
About/ info
- Erik Erikson's Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development: Conflicts & Growth - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- What Is Psychosocial Health? - Definition, Components & Traits - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- Psychosocial Framework - Social Work - Oxford Bibliographies
- Psychosocial - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "For a concept to be psychosocial means it relates to one's psychological development in, and interaction with, a social environment. The individual needs not be fully aware of this relationship with their environment."
- Medical Model vs. Psychosocial/Behavioral Model
- Erikson’s Psychosocial Model - Developmental life-span crises
- Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory of Human Development, eight crisis stages human life-cycle, for teaching and learning, child development
Epigenetics Theory
- Epigenetics Theory
- "The developmental psychologist Erik Erikson used the term epigenetic principle in his book Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968), and used it to encompass the notion that we develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages. This biological unfolding in relation to our socio-cultural settings is done in stages of psychosocial development, where "progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages." - Wikipedia
- " This principle says that we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages. A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time, in a certain order, which nature, through genetics, has determined. If we interfere in the natural order of development by pulling a petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower." - @Webspace
cognitive Development
Cognitive development
- "Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a child's development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain development and cognitive psychology compared to an adult's point of view. In other words, cognitive development is the emergence of the ability to think and understand.[1] A large portion of research has gone into understanding how a child imagines the world. Jean Piaget was a major force in the establishment of this field, forming his "theory of cognitive development". Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational period" - Wikipedia
- Cognitive Development - stages, meaning, average, Definition, Description, Common problems
- Cognitive Development in Children | Stages & Changes in Adolescence
- Educational Psychology Interactive: Cognitive Development
- Jean Piaget | Cognitive Theory | Simply Psychology
- Cognitive Development Domain - Child Development (CA Dept of Education)
- Cognitive Development In Preschool Children - HealthyChildren.org
- Cognitive Development in Childhood | Noba
- Cognitive Development - Journal - Elsevier
behavioral adaptation
- @Wikipedia - “Behavioral contagion is a type of social influence. It refers to the propensity for certain behavior exhibited by one person to be copied by others who are either in the vicinity of the original actor, or who have been exposed to media coverage describing the behavior of the original actor. It was originally used by Gustave Le Bon (1895) to explain undesirable aspects of behavior of people in crowds.”
- @Psychology Dictionary - “More of a powerful social influence, it usually explains how moods and behaviors can easily be adopted by crowds.“
- Behavioral contagion during learning about another agent’s risk-preferences acts on the neural representation of decision-risk @ PNAS - “ Using fMRI combined with computational modeling of behavioral data, we show that human risk-preference can be systematically altered by the act of observing and learning from others’ risk-related decisions”
- Behavioral Contagion (SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY) @ iResearchNet - “ These brain cells are active both when people perform a certain behavior (e.g., grasping) and when we merely see someone else perform that behavior. These brain cells do not discriminate between our own and other people’s behavior. Although there is no final word about these mirror neurons and whether they actually cause imitation, there is more and more evidence for the hypothesis that imi-tation is hardwired in the human brain.”
- Toward a Theory of Behavioral Contagion @ MSU - Conformity. Social Pressurs. Social Facilitation.Imitation
- Behavioral contagion: Influence of others affects our decisions to engage in risky behaviors -- Science of the Spirit @ Sott.net - “n the study, 24 people faced a gambling scenario. They were given four seconds to decide whether they wanted to say "yes" to a sure thing — a guaranteed win of $10 — or take a chance at getting a higher amount. Sometimes they were also asked to observe others making the same choice, or even to predict someone else's response (whether they were likely to take a risk or not), without being able to see the outcomes of their choices. The scientists found that when participants didn't observe others' choices, the majority behaved cautiously, and were more likely to choose the safer bet — the guaranteed $10. But when participants observed others who were engaged in risk-taking behavior, they were likely to also adopt take the riskier bet, even though they had no way of knowing if the risks actually paid off for the people they were observing. “
Interactionist Perspective
- 4) Interactionist perspective | Revise Sociology - "Interactionists disagree with functionalist on both the idea that society has a consensus about what crime is and the idea that crime is caused by “external forces”. Instead Blumer said everybody commits crimes and deviance, it is more important to look at the way society reacts to this behaviour."
- Three Major Perspectives in Sociology
- SparkNotes: Deviance: Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
- Interactionism in Sociology: Definition & Examples - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- The Interactionist Perspective
- The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
- Interactionist Perspective - "Definition: The interactionist perspective is one of the major theoretical perspectives within sociology. It focuses on the concrete details of what goes on among individuals in everyday life. Interactionists study how we use and interpret symbols not only to communicate with each other, but also to create and maintain impressions of ourselves, to create a sense of self, and to create and sustain what we experience as the reality of a particular social situation. From this perspective, social life consists largely of a complex fabric woven of countless interactions through which life takes on shape and meaning."
- Interactionism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "In sociology, interactionism is a theoretical perspective that derives social processes (such as conflict, cooperation, identity formation) from human interaction. It is the study of how individuals act within society. Interactionist theory has grown in the latter half of the twentieth century and has become one of the dominant sociological perspectives in the world today. George Herbert Mead, as an advocate of pragmatism and the subjectivity of social reality is considered a leader in the development of interactionism. Herbert Blumer expanded on Mead's work and coined the term "symbolic interactionism"."
Behavioral contagion
- Behavioral Contagion: 3 Contagious Behaviors You Didn't Know, According To Science : Wellness : Parent Herald - 1. Smiling/Frowning...2. Politeness/Impoliteness...3. Risky behavior
- Behavioral contagion - Wikipedia - “Ogunlade (1979, p. 205) describes behavioral contagion as a “spontaneous, unsolicited and uncritical imitation of another’s behavior” that occurs when certain variables are met: a) the observer and the model share a similar situation or mood (this is one way behavioral contagion can be readily applied to mob psychology); b) the model’s behavior encourages the observer to review his condition and to change it; c) the model’s behavior would assist the observer to resolve a conflict by reducing restraints, if copied; and d) the model is assumed to be a positive reference individual.”
- Toward a Theory of Behavioral Contagion
- Behavioral Contagion (SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY) - iResearchNet - “Why do we imitate? Whereas behavioral synchrony in many species of animals promotes safety (think of schools of fish or flocks of birds), in humans, imitation also serves other functions. First, imitation is a very efficient tool to understand others and learn from them. By doing what another does, we know what the other person is doing. “
- What is BEHAVIORAL CONTAGION? definition of BEHAVIORAL CONTAGION (Psychology Dictionary) - “"More of a powerful social influence, it usually explains how moods and behaviors can easily be adopted by crowds. What is BEHAVIORAL CONTAGION? definition of BEHAVIORAL CONTAGION (Psychology Dictionary)"”
- Behavioral contagion: Influence of others affects our decisions to engage in risky behaviors -- Science of the Spirit -- Sott.net - “Social scientists use the term "behavioral contagion" to explain the phenomenon of people shifting their beliefs, opinions, or emotional states to conform with those expressed by others around them, said Shinsuke Suzuki, a co-author of the study and a postdoctoral scholar in neuroscience at the California Institute of Technology. ...But the study also found that people shy away from taking a risk if they observed others doing the same, he added. “
System justification theory
- System justification theory / Dr. Simon Moss @ Sicotests - “In particular, according to this theory, individuals like to perceive the world as predictable& otherwise, they would not feel a sense of control, and negative emotional states would prevail (cf Lerner, 1980& Rankin, Jost, & Wakslak, 2009). To perceive the world as predictable, they feel motivated to assume that society is fair and just. “
- System Justification Theory - PsychWiki - A Collaborative Psychology Wiki - “System Justification Theory (SJT) is a theory of social psychology that postulates that people are motivated, often unconsciously, to bolster, defend, and justify the status quo–-that is, the prevailing social, economic, and political systems. “
- System Justification (SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY) @ iResearchNet - “According to system justification theory, people want to hold favorable attitudes about themselves (ego-justification) and their own groups (group-justification), and they want to hold favorable attitudes about the overarching social order (system-justification). Importantly, system justification theory holds that this motive is not unique to members of dominant groups, who benefit the most from the current regime; it also affects the thoughts and behaviors of members of groups who are harmed by it (e.g., poor people, oppressed minorities, gays, and lesbians). System justification theory therefore accounts for counter-intuitive evidence that members of disadvantaged groups often support the societal status quo (at least to some degree), even at considerable cost to themselves and to fellow group members.”
- @Wikipedia - “According to system justification theory, people desire not only to hold favorable attitudes about themselves (ego-justification) and the groups to which they belong (group-justification), but also to hold positive attitudes about the overarching social structure in which they are entwined and find themselves obligated to (system-justification). This system-justifying motive sometimes produces the phenomenon known as out-group favoritism, an acceptance of inferiority among low-status groups and a positive image of relatively higher status groups. Thus, the notion that individuals are simultaneously supporters and victims of the system-instilled norms is a central idea in system justification theory. “
Ecological Systems Theory
About / Info
- Ecological Systems Theory Archives - IMPACT Program - "Research suggests bullying needs to be understood by examining the influence of larger social environments." "The article suggests that places for intervention at this ecological level may include: Improving parent-child relationships Changing the culture of peer relationships Reducing parental attitudes around violence Increasing student connectedness to their schools Improving the school climate Changing cultural beliefs around bullying, homophobia, and masculinity"
- @ Wikipedia - "Per this theoretical construction, each system contains roles, norms and rules which may shape psychological development. For example, an inner-city family faces many challenges which an affluent family in a gated community does not, and vice versa. The inner-city family is more likely to experience environmental hardships, like crime and squalor. On the other hand, the sheltered family is more likely to lack the nurturing support of extended family""
- Ecological Systems Theory by Nisbett Sharma on Prezi
- Ecological Systems Theory by April Brewer on Prezi
- The Ecosystems Perspective: Implications for Practice by Mark A. Mattaini and Carol H. Meyer - "The ecomap enables people’s environments to be depicted as the matrix of their lives, not only as background. As a result, one can better understand the emergence of family therapy. Once, the family was considered the background in a person’s life. Today, family members are recognized as parts of a self-organizing system. Thinking systemically, a practitioner would not treat a young child without directly engaging the child’s parents. Practice with families is becoming increasingly community-centered as well (Sviridoff & Ryan, 1997), recognizing the deep transactional connectedness between the family and other elements of community networks, which can support or sabotage the collaborative efforts of the family and social worker."
- Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model uploaded by Zoe Hedegard
- What is Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory? - "Given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, however, it is not impossible for the development of the two siblings to progress in different manners. Each child’s particular personality traits, such as temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how he is treated by others. One of the most significant findings that Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of ecological systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves within the same ecological system to still experience very different environments."
- Urie Bronfenbrenner Ecological Theory - YouTube
- Urie Bronfenbrenner & Ecological Systems Theory - YouTube
- The Ecological Systems Theory by Urie Bronfenbrenner - 1. The Micro System. 2. The Mesosystem 3. The Exosystem 4. The Macrosystem 5. The Chronosystem
- Urie Bronfenbrenner and Child Development Overview @ Gulfbend - Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems theory to explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops. He labeled different aspects or levels of the environment that influence children's development, including the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem. "
The Micro system
- Urie Bronfenbrenner and Child Development @ Mental Help - "The microsystem is the small, immediate environment the child lives in. Children's microsystems will include any immediate relationships or organizations they interact with, such as their immediate family or caregivers and their school or daycare."
- Defining Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory @ Linkedin - "Child-teacher interaction.Child-peer interaction.Child-parent interaction"
- Bronfenbrenner: Ecological Systems Theory Cheat Sheet by Davidpol - Cheatography.com: Cheat Sheets For Every Occasion @ Cheatography - "The microsystem contains settings in which the child has direct interactions and that have a direct influence on the child’s development such as family, peers, school..."
- What is Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory of development?@ eNotes - "It is in the microsystem that the most direct interactions with social agents take place; with parents, peers, and teachers, for example.""
The mesosystem
- Urie Bronfenbrenner and Child Development @ Mental Help - "describes how the different parts of a child's microsystem work together "
- Defining Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory @ Linkedin - "Home-school relationship.Neighbourhood.School-community relationship"
- Bronfenbrenner: Ecological Systems Theory Cheat Sheet by Davidpol - Cheatography.com: Cheat Sheets For Every Occasion @ Cheatography - "..where a child's individual microsystems do not function independently, but are interconnected..."
- What is Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory of development?@ eNotes - "some common examples are the connection between family experiences and school experiences, school experiences to church experiences, and family experiences to peer experiences.""
The exosystem
- Urie Bronfenbrenner and Child Development @ Mental Help - "includes the other people and places that the child herself may not interact with often herself but that still have a large affect on her, ""
- Defining Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory @ Linkedin - "Parent’s work.Parent’s relationships with friends and family"
- Bronfenbrenner: Ecological Systems Theory Cheat Sheet by Davidpol - Cheatography.com: Cheat Sheets For Every Occasion @ Cheatography - "refers to a setting that does not involve the child as an active participant, but still affects them"
- What is Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory of development?@ eNotes - "...concerned with the connection between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual's immediate context. "
The macrosystem
- Urie Bronfenbrenner and Child Development @ Mental Help - "includes things such as the relative freedoms permitted by the national government, cultural values, the economy, wars, etc.""
- Defining Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory @ Linkedin - "Culture: beliefs, values and ways of doing things.Society: laws and structures"
- Bronfenbrenner: Ecological Systems Theory Cheat Sheet by Davidpol - Cheatography.com: Cheat Sheets For Every Occasion @ Cheatography - "this level contains cultural values, health, public policy, laws, etc. "
- What is Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory of development?@ eNotes - "Describes the culture in which individuals live.
The chronosystem
- Defining Bronfe- nbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory @ Linkedin "Changes in contexts and their relationships over time.Changes in life circumstances.Societal change.Maturation and development"
- Bronfenbrenner: Ecological Systems Theory Cheat Sheet by Davidpol - Cheatography.com: Cheat Sheets For Every Occasion @ Cheatography - "consists of all of the experiences that a child has had during his or her lifetime"
- What is Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory of development?@ eNotes - " Refers to the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life of an individual as well as sociohistorical circumstances
Bioecological model
- @ Wikipedia - "The framework emphasizes the importance of understanding bidirectional influences between individuals’ development and their surrounding environmental contexts.In the bioecological model, in contrast to his earlier models, Bronfenbrenner also includes time (known as the chronosystem in his model) as an important component in the way that people and environments change""
- Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model of Development by Carson Bennett on Prezi
Can we guess how a person is going to behave simply by observation and time? Some of this is a mathematical psychology some of it is just how I see how math can be related to how we act. Also, how using math can help shape how we think and view other people in either a positive way, or a negative way. Also, learn how to solve problems , and protect yourself from toxic people.
ALGORITHMS
heuristic
Matching law
The guy that came up with this wrote the Bell Curve which sucks because he is a racist and I definitely don’t support that. :(
- Matching law @ Psychology Wiki - “The matching law is theoretically important for two reasons. First, it offers a simple quantification of behaviour which is capable of extension to a number of other situations. Secondly, it appears to offer a lawful, predictive account of choice; as Herrnstein (1970) expressed it, under an operant analysis, choice is nothing by behavior set into the context of other behavior. It thus challenges any idea of free will, in exactly they way B. F. Skinner had argued that the experimental analysis of behavior should, in his book Beyond freedom and dignity. However this challenge is only serious if the scope of the matching law can be extended from pigeons to humans. When human participants perform under concurrent schedules of reinforcement, matching has been observed in some experiment (e.g. Bradshaw et al, 1976), but wide deviations from matching have been found in others (e.g. Horne & Lowe, 1993).
- ”Quick Summary of the Matching Law: A mathematical equation for why people make choices | Reflections from a Children's Therapist @ PsychCentral - As you can see in these two videos that describe the matching law, this scientific description of choice-making allows practitioners to utilize a formula, observations, data, and a systematic approach to hypothesize what a person will do. Additionally, behavior analysts can use the matching law to create increases in desired behaviors by assessing the behaviors that result in the highest reinforcement and then changing the environment to suit which behaviors the behavior analyst, parent, or teacher would like to see more of from the child, depending on the needs of the individual child and the goals of his or her treatment.”
- @ WIkipedia -“In operant conditioning, the matching law is a quantitative relationship that holds between the relative rates of response and the relative rates of reinforcement in concurrent schedules of reinforcement. Fo”r example, if two response alternatives A and B are offered to an organism, the ratio of response rates to A and B equals the ratio of reinforcements yielded by each response.[1] This law applies fairly well when non-human subjects are exposed to concurrent variable interval schedules (but see below); its applicability in other situations is less clear, depending on the assumptions made and the details of the experimental situation.”
- The Matching Law @ IPFW - “We can state the matching law a bit more formally in the following equation: P1/(P1 + P2) = R1/(R1 + R2) In the equation, P1 and P2 designate the rate of pecking of the left and right keys, respectively, whereas R1 and R2 denote the respective rates of reinforcement for pecking at those keys. The values on both sides of the equal sign are proportions; if you multiply each by 100 you get percentages. The matching law states that these two proportions always match (at least, within the limits of experimental error).”
- The Matching Law: A Tutorial for Practitioners @ NCBI - “The application of the matching law has historically been limited to use as a quantitative measurement tool in the experimental analysis of behavior to describe temporally extended patterns of behavior-environment relations. In recent years, however, applications of the matching law have been translated to clinical settings and populations to gain a better understanding of how naturally-occurring events affect socially important behaviors. This tutorial provides a brief background of the conceptual foundations of matching, an overview of the various matching equations that have been used in research, and a description of how to interpret the data derived from these equations in the context of numerous examples of matching analyses conducted with socially important behavior. An appendix of resources is provided to direct readers to primary sources, as well as useful articles and books on the topic.”
- The Matching Law, Key To Dog Behavior @ Smart Animal Training Systems - “Whether we’re a human, a dog, a cat or a horse, the choices we make are the result of a number of variables from the experienced consequences from the environment. In applied behavior analysis, the choices a person or an animal makes, is the direct result of the ‘matching law’. At the last conference ‘out of the lab, into the field’, Parvene Farhoody revealed how this law of effect not only directly influences the animal’s behavior, but also the efficiency and accuracy of our training.The choices we make are the direct result of a number of variables, such as the rate of reinforcement (how many times we’ve been reinforced for the behavior), the quality of the reinforcement (how much did we appreciate that reinforcement), or the reinforcement delay (how soon did we get the reinforcement). If you were paid $1,000 for every phone call you had to make, would you still chose to walk your dog over calling a difficult client? According to the matching law, the chances of choosing one behavior over another are the direct equivalent of how much those behaviors have been reinforced. In other words, faced with two options, A and B, if A was reinforced twice as much as B, we would chose option A twice as often as we would chose option B. Let’s say your dog got clicked and treated 10 times when sitting at a 90° angle from your body and 5 times when sitting parallel in good alignment. As a result, when asked to ‘sit’, your dog would be twice as likely to sit at a 90° angle.”
Hypostatic abstraction
Set theory
2nd Law of Thermodynamics & Entropy
About energy & heat, but still very interesting...
- Second law of thermodynamics uploaded by khanacademymedicine
- Second Law of Thermodynamics and entropy @ Khan Academy uploaded by Khan Academy
- Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics uploaded by DrPhysicsA
- Entropy: Why the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics is a fundamental law of physics uploaded by
- Physics Videos by Eugene Khutoryansky
- The Laws of Thermodynamics, Entropy, and Gibbs Free Energy uploaded by Professor Dave Explains
- What is the second law of thermodynamics? @ The Guardian - “At its heart is a property of thermodynamic systems called entropy – in the equations above it is represented by "S" – in loose terms, a measure of the amount of disorder within a system. This can be represented in many ways, for example in the arrangement of the molecules – water molecules in an ice cube are more ordered than the same molecules after they have been heated into a gas. Whereas the water molecules were in a well-defined lattice in the ice cube, they float unpredictably in the gas. The entropy of the ice cube is, therefore, lower than that of the gas.
- A Student’s Approach to the Second Law and Entropy @ Entropy Site - “The second law is based on human experience. It doesn’t come from complicated theory and equations. So, think of these experiences that you have had: A rock will fall if you lift it up and then let go. Hot frying pans cool down when taken off the stove. Iron rusts (oxidizes) in the air. Air in a high-pressure tire shoots out from even a small hole in its side to the lower pressure atmosphere. Ice cubes melt in a warm room. What’s happening in each of those processes? Energy of some kind is changing from being localized ("concentrated" in the rock or the pan, etc.) to becoming more spread out. Look at those examples again to see how that statement fits them all.”
- Entropy and Second Law of Thermodynamics uploaded by AK LECTURES
- Second law of thermodynamics | Thermodynamics | Chemical processes | MCAT @| Khan Academy
- @About - “In practical applications, this law means that any heat engine or similar device based upon the principles of thermodynamics cannot, even in theory, be 100% efficient.”
- Michio Kaku (2014) on "The Laws of Thermodynamics and Fate of The Universe" uploaded by Michio Kaku Videos
- @wikipedia - “The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system always increases over time, or remains constant in ideal cases where the system is in a steady state or undergoing a reversible process. The increase in entropy accounts for the irreversibility of natural processes, and the asymmetry between future and past.”
- Second Law of Thermodynamics @ HyperPhysics - “The second law of thermodynamics is a general principle which places constraints upon the direction of heat transfer and the attainable efficiencies of heat engines.”
- Second Law of Thermodynamics @ GRC.NASA - “We can imagine thermodynamic processes which conserve energy but which never occur in nature. For example, if we bring a hot object into contact with a cold object, we observe that the hot object cools down and the cold object heats up until an equilibrium is reached. The transfer of heat goes from the hot object to the cold object. We can imagine a system, however, in which the heat is instead transferred from the cold object to the hot object, and such a system does not violate the first law of thermodynamics. The cold object gets colder and the hot object gets hotter, but energy is conserved.”
- Second Law of Thermodynamics,Entropy &Gibbs Free Energy uploaded by Learn Engineering
- 5.1 Concept and Statements of the Second Law
- 2nd Law of Thermodynamics - Chemistry LibreTexts - “ Certain things happen in one direction and not the other, this is called the "arrow of time" and it encompasses every area of science. The thermodynamic arrow of time (entropy) is the measurement of disorder within a system. Denoted as ΔSΔS , the change of entropy suggests that time itself is asymmetric with respect to order of an isolated system, meaning: a system will become more disordered, as time increases. “
- @Live Science - “The Second Law also states that there is a natural tendency of any isolated system to degenerate into a more disordered state. Saibal Mitra, a professor of physics at Missouri State University, finds the Second Law to be the most interesting of the four laws of thermodynamics. “There are a number of ways to state the Second Law," he said. "At a very microscopic level, it simply says that if you have a system that is isolated, any natural process in that system progresses in the direction of increasing disorder, or entropy, of the system.” Mitra explained that all processes result in an increase in entropy. Even when order is increased in a specific location, for example by the self-assembly of molecules to form a living organism, when you take the entire system including the environment into account, there is always a net increase in entropy.”
- Unscrambling the Second Law of Thermodynamics @ Quillette
- A Student’s Approach to the Second Law and Entropy @ Entropy Site - “Entropy measures the spontaneous dispersal of energy: how much energy is spread out in a process, or how widely spread out it becomes — at a specific temperature. (Sometimes, it’s a simple equation, Entropy change = “energy dispersed”/T, or qreversible/T , as in phase changes like melting or vaporization where ΔS = ΔHfusion /T or ΔHvaporization /T, respectively.)
- Entropy: Embrace the Chaos! Crash Course Chemistry #20 uploaded by CrashCourse
- Introduction to entropy | Energy and enzymes uploaded by Khan Academy
- More on entropy | Thermodynamics | Physics uploaded by Khan Academy
- @About - “Entropy is defined as the quantitative measure of disorder or randomness in a system...In an isothermal process, the change in entropy (delta-S) is the change in heat (Q) divided by the absolute temperature (T):delta-S = Q/T”
- Entropy Law.com
- Entropy Site
- @Wikipedia -”In thermodynamics, entropy is commonly associated with the amount of order, disorder, or chaos in a thermodynamic system.”
- Second Law of Thermodynamics @ All About Science - “"Entropy" is defined as a measure of unusable energy within a closed or isolated system (the universe for example). As usable energy decreases and unusable energy increases, "entropy" increases. Entropy is also a gauge of randomness or chaos within a closed system. As usable energy is irretrievably lost, disorganization, randomness and chaos increase.”
- 2nd Law of Thermodynamics @ Engineering Toolbox - “Entropy is produced by all processes and associated with the entropy production is the loss of ability to do work. The second law says that the entropy of the universe increases. An increase in overall disorder is therefore spontaneous. If the volume and energy of a system are constant, then every change to the system increases the entropy. If volume or energy change, then the entropy of the system actually decrease. However, the entropy of the universe does not decrease.”
- Entropy intuition | Thermodynamics | Physics uploaded by Khan Academy
Equilibrium
title 2
- The Science of Happiness | Positive Psychology | edX - "What you'll learn:Discover what happiness is and why it matters to you.Learn how to increase your own happiness.Understand the power of social connections and the science of empathy.Discover what is mindfulness and its real world applications"
- Positivepsychology (dot) org (dot) uk - "There are currently a large number of educational programmes focusing on positive psychology, including academic and non-academic (profesional) ones, long- and short-term ones, theory- and practice-centered, etc. We have started putting together this list of educational programmes to help you in choosing a right one for you."
- Positive Psychology Program - "Your OWN one stop Positive Psychology Program
24 character strengths/ 6 core strengths
- What's Right With You: How to Discover Your Personal Strengths @Positive-Living-Now
- Positive Psychology Program Character Strengths and Virtues: A Classification - "Wisdom and Knowledge.Courage
Humanity.Justice.Temperance.Transcendence - Learn Your 24 Character Strengths: VIA Character Survey - "Each one of us possess all 24 of the VIA character strengths in varying degrees making up our own unique profiles. The VIA Classification of Character Strengths is comprised of 24 character strengths that fall under six broad virtue categories: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance and transcendence . They are morally and universally valued, encompass our capacities for helping ourselves and others and produce positive effects when we express them. Knowing your constellation of character strengths is the first step towards living a happier, more authentic life. Discover your personalized Character Strengths Profile by taking our free personality test, the VIA Survey."
- Six Core Strengths for Healthy Child Development: An Overview uploaded by The ChildTrauma Academy Channel - "This brief overview provides an introduction to the Six Core Strengths program developed by Dr. Bruce Perry and The ChildTrauma Academy."
Flow / Positive psychology
- Flow @ pursuit-of-happiness - "FThe top line: If we are actively involved in trying to reach a goal, or an activity that is challenging but well suited to our skills, we experience a joyful state called “flow.” The experience of flow in both professional and leisure activities leads to increased positive affect, performance, and commitment to long-term, meaningful goals....This loss of self-consciousness that happens when you are completely absorbed in an activity – intellectual, professional, or physical – is described in contemporary psychology as a state of flow"
- Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi: Flow, the secret to happiness @TED - "Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi asks, "What makes a life worth living?" Noting that money cannot make us happy, he looks to those who find pleasure and lasting satisfaction in activities that bring about a state of "flow.""
- "It is the full involvement of flow, rather than happiness, that makes for excellence in life. We can be happy experiencing the passive pleasure of a rested body, warm sunshine, or the contentment of a serene relationship, but this kind of happiness is dependent on favorable external circumstances. The happiness that follows flow is of our own making, and it leads to increasing complexity and growth in consciousness." - Finding Flow Reviews the book 'Finding Flow,' by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi.
- What Is Flow? Understanding the Psychology of Flow - "In his book Finding Flow, Csíkszentmihályi explains that flow is likely to occur when an individual is faced with a task that has clear goals that require specific responses. A game of chess is a good example of when a flow state might occur. For the duration of a competition, the player has very specific goals and responses, allowing attention to be focused entirely on the game during the period of play."
- LIVING IN FLOW @ Positive Psychology - " He came to the conclusion that flow is a universal experience, which has several important characteristics: Clarity of goals and immediate feedback on the progress. For example, in a competition you know what you've got to achieve and you know exactly how well you are doing, i.e. whether you are winning or losing.Complete concentration on what one is doing at the present moment, with no room in one's mind for any other information.Actions and awareness are merged. A guitar player merges with the instrument and becomes the music that he plays. The activity becomes almost automatic, and the involvement seems almost effortless (though far from being so in reality).Losing awareness of oneself or self-consciousness is also a common experience but, interestingly, after each flow experience the sense of self is strengthened and a person becomes more than he or she was before.Sense of control over what one is doing, with no worries about failure.Transformation of time. Usually, time passes much faster than expected. However, the reverse can also be true.Activities are intrinsically rewarding. This means they have an end in themselves (you do something because you want to), with any other end goal often being just an excuse."
- "According to Csikszentmihalyi, flow is completely focused motivation. It is a single-minded immersion and represents perhaps the ultimate experience in harnessing the emotions in the service of performing and learning. In flow, the emotions are not just contained and channeled, but positive, energized, and aligned with the task at hand. The hallmark of flow is a feeling of spontaneous joy, even rapture, while performing a task,[2] although flow is also described (below) as a deep focus on nothing but the activity – not even oneself or one's emotions." - Wikipedia
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
We must receive love and give love, we need to feel safe. When those needs are not met it can manifest in numerous different ways. society tells us we are wrong, too ugly and fat to love or have the ability to feel safe and secure then wonders why people have depression, eating disorders,etc.
- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs @ Simple Psychology - "This five stage model can be divided into basic (or deficiency) needs (e.g. physiological, safety, love, and esteem) and growth needs (self-actualization).The deficiency, or basic needs are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the need to fulfil such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food the more hungry they will become."
- @ Wikipedia - "Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, some of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans. Maslow used the terms "physiological", "safety", "belongingness" and "love", "esteem", "self-actualization", and "self-transcendence" to describe the pattern that human motivations generally move through."
Values in Action Inventory of Strengths
- Values in Action Inventory of Strengths - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "The VIA Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS), formerly known as the "Values in Action Inventory," is a psychological assessment measure designed to identify an individual’s profile of character strengths. It was created by Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman, well-known researchers in the field of positive psychology, in order to operationalize their Character Strengths and Virtues Handbook (CSV)."
- Character Strengths Survey, Character Test: VIA Character - "Take the VIA Survey to discover your strengths. After completing the VIA Survey, your results are used to produce your personalized VIA Reports with exercises and resources to help you move towards a more fully realized "you"."
- Know Your Character Strengths, Improve Your Life: VIA Character - "Knowing your character strengths isn’t just interesting information. When skillfully applied, character strengths can actually have a significant positive impact on your life. Research shows that using your character strengths can help you: Buffer against, manage and overcome problems. Improve your relationships. Enhance health and overall well-being"
- Character Strengths, Character Building Experts: VIA Character
- Discover Your Character Strengths in 15 Minutes - PsyBlog - Describes character strengths and how to use them.
- Questionnaire Center | Authentic Happines
Character Strengths and Virtues (Positive Psycholoy's answer to the DSM)
Character Strengths and Virtues - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - In the same way that the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is used to assess and facilitate research on mental disorders, CSV is intended to provide a theoretical framework to assist in developing practical applications for positive psychology
SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING
- Subjective Well-Being definition @ alleydog.com - "Subjective Well-Being or SWB refers to a person's own assessment of their happiness and satisfaction with life."
- Subjective Well-Being @ Positive Psychology - "A person who has a high level of satisfaction with their life, and who experiences a greater positive affect and little or less negative affect, would be deemed to have a high level of SWB [or in simpler terms, be very happy]. The concept of SWB falls within the ‘hedonic’ perspective that defines well-being or happiness as being fundamentally about maximising pleasure and avoiding or minimizing pain. This differs from the ‘eudiamonic’ perspective which, as Waterman (1993) stated, is where one lives in accordance with one’s diamon, or ‘true self’. This perspective places focus on meaning in life and self-realization, and the extent to which a person fully integrates this into his or her life.
- Happiness: The Science of Subjective Well-Being @ Noba - "People’s levels of subjective well-being are influenced by both internal factors, such as personality and outlook, and external factors, such as the society in which they live. Some of the major determinants of subjective well-being are a person’s inborn temperament, the quality of their social relationships, the societies they live in, and their ability to meet their basic needs."
- Subjective Well-Being: Evaluating Your Life@ Positive Psychology - "Examples of affective and life satisfaction measurements are the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) respectively. These are just two examples of measurement techniques. Both of the aforementioned are examples of self-report methods, which have raised question in the psychological community regarding the validity of such tests. A concern that may come with self-report measurements include the possibility that participants may not be fully truthful when questioned. Situational factors have also been shown to effect the responses of individuals."
- Top-down perspective
- @ Wikipedia - "Top-down theories of SWB suggest that people have a genetic predisposition to be happy or unhappy and this predisposition determines their SWB "setpoint". Set Point theory implies that a person's baseline or equilibrium level of SWB is a consequence of hereditary characteristics and therefore, almost entirely predetermined at birth.[14] Evidence for this genetic predisposition derives from behavior-genetic studies that have found that positive and negative affectivity each have high heritability (40% and 55% respectively in one study)."
Bottoms-up perspective
@ WIkipedia - "Bottom-up influences include external events, and broad situational and demographic factors, including health and marital status. Bottom-up approaches are based on the idea that there are universal basic human needs and that happiness results from their fulfilment. In support of this view, there is evidence that daily pleasurable events are associated with increased positive affect, and daily unpleasant events or hassles are associated with increased negative affect."
KINDNESS PRIMING (PSYCHOLOGY)
- Kindness priming (psychology) - Wikipedia - “Kindness priming is an affect-dependent cognitive effect in which subjects will display a positive affect following exposure to kindness.”
- Kindness Priming | The Daily Omnivore - It is hypothesized that kindness priming involves the same cognitive circuitry that enables memory priming. By activating neural representations of positive affect, an act of kindness stimulates increased activity in related associative networks. It is therefore more likely that subsequent stimuli will activate these related, positive networks, and so the positive affect continues to be carried forward in a feed forward manner. Additionally, kindness priming has also been shown to inoculate against negative stimuli in the short term, thus temporarily improving an individual’s resilience.
Murray's system of needs (similar to maslow's....)
- Murray's system of needs - Wikipedia - “ According to Murray, human psychogenic needs function on an unconscious level, but they can play a major role in our personality (Cherry, 2015). According to Murray, personality can be determined in four major ways. These include constitutional determinants, group membership determinants, life role determinants, and situational determinants (Flett, 2008).”
- Murray's Needs @ Changing Minds - Huge list, please look.
- Murray’s Theory On Psychogenic Needs - Consumer Behaviour: a needs perspective - “Murray believed human nature involved a set of universal basic needs, however, he said that individual differences on these needs lead to the unique personalties that each person has”
- Murray's Theory of Psychogenic Needs - “1. Ambition Needs....2.Materalistic needs....3.Power needs...4. Affection Needs...5. Information Needs...”
- Murray's system of needs | Psychology Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia - “ For Murray, human nature involved a set of universal basic needs, with individual differences on these needs leading to the uniqueness of personality through varying dispositional tendencies for each need. In other words, specific needs are more important to some than to others. Frustration of these psychogenic (or psychological) needs plays a central role in the origin of psychological pain”
- Henry Murray - New World Encyclopedia - Huge list, please look.
- Murray’s Psychogenic Needs | Lynn Munoz - “ The list of psychogenic needs include: abasement, achievement, acquisition, affiliation, aggression, autonomy, blame avoidance, construction, contrariance, counteraction, defendance, deference, dominance (power), exhibition, exposition, harm avoidance, infavoidance, nurturance, order, play, recognition, rejection, sentience, sex (erotic), similance, succorance, and understanding (cognizance) (“Needs,” 2011”
Fundamental human needs
- Fundamental human needs - Wikipedia - They are also constant through all human cultures and across historical time periods. What changes over time and between cultures is the strategies by which these needs (and created desires) are satisfied. Human needs can be understood as a system—i.e., they are interrelated and interactive. In this system, there is no hierarchy of needs (apart from the basic need for subsistence or survival) as postulated by Western psychologists such as Maslow, rather, simultaneity, complementarity and trade-offs are features of the process of needs satisfaction.Manfred Max-Neef and his colleagues developed a taxonomy of human needs and a process by which communities can identify their "wealths" and "poverties" according to how their fundamental human needs are satisfied.”
- Max-Neef on Human Needs and Human-scale Development @ Rain Forest Info
- Fundamental Human Needs – Patterns of Participation - “"NEEDS (few, finite, classifiable, account for everything and everyone)....WANTS (infinite, insatiable, satisfiers to fundamental human needs)...."
- Needs @ EJolt - “Nine fundamental needs are identified (see Table 1): subsistence, protection, affection, understanding, participation, leisure, creation, identity and freedom).”
- Fundamental Human Needs – Max Neef - List.
- Manfred Max-Neef - Building a Culture of Peace
- Leisure and creation are fundamental human needs | Nurturing Children to Learn Naturally At Home Childcare
- Human Scale Development – Fundamental Human Needs – Manfred A Max Neef | The Glass is Half Full - 65 pages, read if you would like.
- Strategies for Sustainability: “I knew I had to say something to strike him kinda weird, so I shouted – ‘I like Manfred Max-Neef, and his beard'…” - Read about ...Destroyers.Pseudo-satisfiers.Inhibiting satisfiers.Inhibiting satisfiers.Synergic satisfiers
- Max-Neef Needs @ Changing Minds - “Max-Neef defined needs as being fulfilled by satisfiers, which themselves are defined as ‘...everything which, by virtue of representative forms of being, having, doing and interacting, contributes to the actualisation of human needs’.
- Max-Neef Model of Human-Scale Development - P2P Foundation - “subsistence....protection...affection...understanding...participation...leisure..creation...identity...freedom...”
About/Info
- Psychosexual Stages: Freud’s Theory | Psychology Today
- Psychosexual development - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "In Freudian psychology, psychosexual development is a central element of the psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess an instinctual libido (sexual energy) that develops in five stages. Each stage – the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. Sigmund Freud proposed that if the child experienced sexual frustration in relation to any psychosexual developmental stage, he or she would experience anxiety that would persist into adulthood as a neurosis, a functional mental disorder"
- Psychosexual | Definition of Psychosexual by Merriam-Webster
- Psychosexual Stages | Simply Psychology
- Freud's 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development
- Freud's Psychosexual Development In Psychology 101 At AllPsych Online | AllPsych
- Psychosexual development | Define Psychosexual development at Dictionary.com
- Freud's Psychosexual Theory of Development
- Psychosexual | Define Psychosexual at Dictionary.com
rooting / sucking reflex - psychosexual
Infants must have a source of food to live and to obtain this food they must suck on a nipple, either from a bottle or mother's breast If the infant is not satisfied when taken off the bottle or breast, he or she may channel that oral fixation through food. That is okay because food is nutritious, makes us feel good and provides our bodies with the vitamins and minerals it needs to survive, unlike smoking and gambling.
- stage of psychosexual development according to Sigmund Freud | . - "Because the baby is completely dependent on caregivers ( who are responsible for feeding the child ) , infants also develop a sense of trust and comfort through oral stimulation ."
- The Oral Stage of Psychosexual Development by Mae Cornellier on Prezi - "the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation."
- TheoriesinPsychology - Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development - "Oral Stage (first 18 months of life): infant’s primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. This stage is responsible for pleasure from oral stimulation. During this stage, the infant also develops qualities such as trust and comfort with its caretakers because they feed it."
- Freud's Psychosexual Theory of Development
Jouissance
- Jouissance - In French, jouissance means enjoyment, in terms both of rights and property,and of sexual orgasm — the latter has a meaning partially lacking in the English word "enjoyment".Poststructuralism has developed the latter sense of jouissance in complex ways, so as to denote a transgressive, excessive kind of pleasure linked to the division and splitting of the subject involved." - Wikipedia
- What Does Lacan Say About… Jouissance? | LACANONLINE.COM
- Jouissance - No Subject - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis
- Jouissance
- Forced Choice of Enjoyment
- Let’s Talk About Jouissance, Baby! | Larval Subjects .
- Jouissance Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Jouissance
- jouissance: definition of jouissance in Oxford dictionary (American English) (US)
- Jouissance | Jouissance Definition by Merriam-Webster
Graph of desire
- Graph of desire - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Graph of desire - No Subject - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis
- Graph of Desire – Dictionary definition of Graph of Desire | Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary
- Lacanian Graph of Desire | Philosophical Explorations
- Amazon.com: The Graph of Desire: Using the Work of Jacque Lacan (9781855756106): Alfredo Eidelzstein: Books
- dusan.satori.sk/lacan/
- freud quotes: Lacanian Graph of Desire
- What Does Lacan Say About… Desire? | LACANONLINE.CO
Fixation
- Fixation dictionary definition | fixation defined
- Fixation - Psychosexual Stages, Freud, and Stage - JRank Articles
- Keith E Rice - Psychosexual Fixations & Personality
- AP Psychology - Fixation - YouTube
- Fixation (psychology) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- What Is a Psychological Fixation?
- Psychosexual Stages | Simply Psychology
- Freudian Personality Type Test - Freudian Psychology - Psychologist World
- Fixation definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com
Penis/ Vagina Envy
- Penis envy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- How Sigmund Freud Viewed Women
- Penis Envy: How Size Influences Self-Esteem – Psychology Tomorrow Magazine
- What’s Left After Penis Envy? | Public Seminar
- Penis Envy definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com
- Cross-cultural perspectives on penis envy. - PubMed - NCBI
anal stage
Anal expulsiveness
Anal retentiveness
Anal eroticism
Transactional analysis
"Transactional analysis is a psychoanalytic therapy wherein social transactions are analyzed to determine the ego state of the patient (whether parent-like, child-like, or adult-like) as a basis for understanding behavior. In transactional analysis, the patient is taught to alter the ego state as a way to solve emotional problems. The method deviates from Freudian psychoanalysis which focuses on increasing awareness of the contents of unconsciously held ideas. Eric Berne developed the concept and paradigm of transactional analysis in the late 1950s" - Wikipedia
"Typically, according to TA, there are three ego-states that people consistently use:
Parent ("exteropsyche"): a state in which people behave, feel, and think in response to an unconscious mimicking of how their parents (or other parental figures) acted, or how they interpreted their parent's actions. For example, a person may shout at someone out of frustration because they learned from an influential figure in childhood the lesson that this seemed to be a way of relating that worked.
Adult ("neopsyche"): a state of the ego which is most like an artificially intelligent system processing information and making predictions about major emotions that could affect its operation. Learning to strengthen the Adult is a goal of TA. While a person is in the Adult ego state, he/she is directed towards an objective appraisal of reality.
Child ("archaeopsyche"): a state in which people behave, feel, and think similarly to how they did in childhood. For example, a person who receives a poor evaluation at work may respond by looking at the floor and crying or pouting, as when scolded as a child. Conversely, a person who receives a good evaluation may respond with a broad smile and a joyful gesture of thanks. The Child is the source of emotions, creation, recreation, spontaneity, and intimacy." - Wikipedia
"Transactional analysis is a psychoanalytic therapy wherein social transactions are analyzed to determine the ego state of the patient (whether parent-like, child-like, or adult-like) as a basis for understanding behavior. In transactional analysis, the patient is taught to alter the ego state as a way to solve emotional problems. The method deviates from Freudian psychoanalysis which focuses on increasing awareness of the contents of unconsciously held ideas. Eric Berne developed the concept and paradigm of transactional analysis in the late 1950s" - Wikipedia
"Typically, according to TA, there are three ego-states that people consistently use:
Parent ("exteropsyche"): a state in which people behave, feel, and think in response to an unconscious mimicking of how their parents (or other parental figures) acted, or how they interpreted their parent's actions. For example, a person may shout at someone out of frustration because they learned from an influential figure in childhood the lesson that this seemed to be a way of relating that worked.
Adult ("neopsyche"): a state of the ego which is most like an artificially intelligent system processing information and making predictions about major emotions that could affect its operation. Learning to strengthen the Adult is a goal of TA. While a person is in the Adult ego state, he/she is directed towards an objective appraisal of reality.
Child ("archaeopsyche"): a state in which people behave, feel, and think similarly to how they did in childhood. For example, a person who receives a poor evaluation at work may respond by looking at the floor and crying or pouting, as when scolded as a child. Conversely, a person who receives a good evaluation may respond with a broad smile and a joyful gesture of thanks. The Child is the source of emotions, creation, recreation, spontaneity, and intimacy." - Wikipedia
- Evil Is But A Shadow by Miley Cyrus Song // Lyrics & Meaning
- Who is John Ryan Haule?
- Read Bright Sided: Positive Thinking Undermines America by Barbara Ehrenreich
- Who is Robert A Johnson?
About / info
Enantiodromia
Metonia
- Metanoia (psychology) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "William James used the term metanoia to refer to a fundamental and stable change in an individual's life-orientation.[2] Carl Gustav Jung developed the usage to indicate a spontaneous attempt of the psyche to heal itself of unbearable conflict by melting down and then being reborn in a more adaptive form - a form of self healing often associated with the mid-life crisis and psychotic breakdown, which can be viewed as a potentially productive process. Jung considered that psychotic episodes in particular could be understood as an existential crisis which might be an attempt at self-reparation: in such instances metanoia could represent a shift in the balance of the personality away from the persona towards the shadow and the self."
- Metanoia | orwelliania -
- At the end of rationalisation lies the mass grave. Metanoia (from the Greek μετάνοια, metanoia, changing one's mind) in the psychological theory of Carl Jung denotes a process of reforming the psyche as a form of self healing, a proposed explanation for the phenomenon of psychotic breakdown. Here, metanoia is viewed as a potentially productive…
- This is Your Mind, Reshaped | metanoiamind - The schizophrenic man is unable to control his every thought. He suffers from delusions and hallucinations, which he tries to convey through jumbled, disorganized thoughts. He leaves his house in his pajamas every morning, his eyes darting across the neighborhood in intense suspicion and paranoia. The psychiatrists and doctors say he is chemically unbalanced, he…
- Dr. Carl Jung's Theory of Metanoia | The Elle Report
- Carl Jung and Jungian Analytical Psychology - Jung saw in unconscious material, especially dreams and fantasies, an unfolding of a process of individuation - the idea of continual, lifelong personal development.
- Metanoia - Metanoia - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jungian Center News
Eros (concept) (Jung)
Collective unconscious
Archytypes
about / info
- **Archetypes Jung's Archetypes By Kendra Cherry @ About(Dot)com - "Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung believed that archetypes are models of people, behaviors or personalities. Jung suggested that the psyche was composed of three components: the ego, the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.According to Jung, the ego represents the conscious mind while the personal unconscious contains memories, including those that have been suppressed. The collective unconscious is a unique component in that Jung believed that this part of the psyche served as a form of psychological inheritance. It contains all of the knowledge and experiences we share as a species."
- Female Archetypes, and the Men Who Love Them * Hooking Up Smart : Hooking Up Smart - 1.Boss 2. The Seductress
3. The Spunky Kid 4. Free Spirit 5 The Waif 6. Librarian 7. The Crusader 8. The Nurturer - The 4 Romantic Archetypes Men are Drawn To @ World of Psychology - 1. The Femina 2. The Islander 3. The Regal 4. The Entrepreneur
- The Five Feminine Sexual Archetypes. by Kevin Macku @elephant journal - Mercury: the Girl Next Door. Venus: the Painted Lady. Mars: the Femme Fatale.Jupiter: the Guys’ Girl. Saturn: the Enigma
- Analyzing The 5 Main Alpha Archetypes @ Return of Kings - The Player.The Hobbyist. The Asshole. The Conqueror. The Alpha Provider
- The Four Archetypes Of The Mature Masculine @ The Art Of Manliness: Intro // The Boyhood Archetypes - pt. 1 & pt.2 // Lover // Warrior // Magician // King
- Check out Archetypes of the Feminine & Masculine
The Innocent
The Orphan/Regular Guy or Gal
The Hero
The Caregiver
title 5
title 6
title 7
The Explorer
Shadow / Shadow Work
About / Info
- "Michael Tsarion - Psychological Repression uploaded by Kelvin Roberts
- "This 'darkness' is not bad. It's what culture, society, religion, disempowering beliefs, etc. consider dark/bad/evil."- Benjamin Orozco
- Alan Watts ~ Facing Your Own Shadow
- Carl Jung on Accepting the Darkness of Self and Others
- Shadow Work; Discovering Inner Gold in Our Shadow Selves by
- ALisa Starkweather
accepting the shadow of yourself & others
Psychoanalysis
- Donald Winnicott
- "Donald Woods Winnicott (/ˈwɪnɪkɒt/; 7 April 1896 – 28 January 1971) was an English paediatrician and psychoanalyst who was especially influential in the field of object relations theory. He was a leading member of the British Independent Group of the British Psychoanalytical Society, President of the British Psychoanalytical Society twice, from 1956–1959 and 1965–1968, and a close associate of Marion Milner. He is best known for his ideas on the true self and false self, and the transitional object. He wrote several books, including Playing and Reality, and over 200 papers." - Wikipedia
- Types of Psychological Complexes - "Adonis, Cain complex, Cleopatra, Diana complex, Don Juan, Elektra, Griselda, Inferiority, Jocasta complex, Lolita, Medea, Messianic Complex, Napoleon, Oedipus, Orestes, psychological complex, Superiority"
Freudian slip
- "A Freudian slip, also called parapraxis, is an error in speech, memory, or physical action that is interpreted as occurring due to the interference of an unconscious ("dynamically repressed") subdued wish or internal train of thought. They reveal a "source [of ideas] outside the speech". The concept is thus part of classical psychoanalysis." - Wikipedia
- DO 'FREUDIAN SLIPS' BETRAY A DARKER, HIDDEN MEANING? - NYTimes.com
- Freudian Slips and Mistakes
- Freudian Slip (A Definition With Examples)
True self & False self
- True self and false self are concepts introduced into psychoanalysis in 1960 by D. W. Winnicott. Winnicott used "True Self" to describe a sense of self based on spontaneous authentic experience, and a feeling of being alive, having a "real self"."False Self" by contrast Winnicott saw as a defensive facade — one which in extreme cases could leave its holders lacking spontaneity and feeling dead and empty, behind a mere appearance of being real." - Wikipedia
- True Self/False Self Part 1: What and Why? - Becoming Who You Are - "The true self is the core of you who are, the original you, unshaped by upbringing or society. This is the state you were born in and it is a state that still exists inside you. Your false self can also be called your adapted self. This is the parts of you that have altered behaviour, repressed feelings and pushed your needs aside to fit in with others.".
- Becoming Who You Are True Self/False Self part 2: The False Self - Becoming Who You Are - "Real-life examples of the false self are based around certain beliefs that we take on in order to fit into our worlds better.If I am pretty, I will be more likeable.If I have a lot of money, I am successful.If I work hard/achieve more, I will have more value.One more glass of wine, and I’ll start feeling better.In our society, there is a huge emphasis on altruism and being selfless. We are taught to put others before ourselves, that it is good to ‘be there’ for other people and that self-sacrifice is a virtue.
- TRUE SELF TREATING THE FALSE SELF - EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE TRAINING FAILS MANY... - He believed that in wellness, a False Self was what permitted a individual to existing a "polite and behaved attitude" in community.But he saw more serious psychological issues in sufferers who seemed incapable to experience natural, in existence or real to themselves in any aspect of their lifestyles, yet handled to put on a effective "show of being real". Such sufferers experienced inwardly from a sensation of being vacant, deceased or "phoney"."the feature of deceptiveness, the cover up, which covers this simple booking of all management under perceptive rationalizations, or under feigned complying and trivial politeness..Carl Rogers had individually outlined Kierkegaard's much previously declare that 'the inner way of hopelessness is to select "to be another than himself." However "to will to be that self which one truly is, is indeed the other of hopelessness," and this option is the inner liability of man'."'
- A comparison of true Self and "false self" behavioral traits
- The Power of the Gifts We Hide @ Psychology Today - "Virtually all of us need some degree of false self to smooth the waters of our day-to-day life. Yet, when we become too dependent upon our false self, we lose the spark of our deepest and most unique gifts. The gifts of our true self are often challenging to live with. How could they be easy? They hold our greatest yearning, our most risky thoughts and ideas, our most essential vulnerability, and our most profound needs. The true self is challenging in both its power and its tenderness. Unless we are taught to work with its force and vulnerability, we lose our link to it. We rely more and more upon our false self, and become more and more uncomfortable with our true self. As this happens, we lose our ability to create, to play and to love. Kierkegaard said that 'the deepest form of despair is to choose "to be another than himself.”"
- True self, false self @ Changing Minds -"Healthy false self: When the false self is functional both for the person and for society then it is considered healthy. The healthy false self feels that that it is still being true to the true self. It can be compliant but without feeling that it has betrayed its true self.When the situation becomes difficult, the true self can still override the true self and so acts as an effective conscience or super-ego.Unhealthy false self: A self that fits in but through a feeling of forced compliance rather than loving adaptation is unhealthy.When the false self wins debates against the true self, the person finds that they are unable to be guided by their true self and so has to adapt to the social situation rather than assert its self."
Freudian model of mate selection - we marry our parents.
- Children who marry their parents: the psychology of courtship | James Watkins: Hope & Humor - "Dr. Hendrix also believes that we marry someone with the same character flaws as our parents, in hopes that we can somehow solve unresolved issues of our childhood. For instance, both Lois and I came from homes which were not very demonstrative about voicing emotions—good or bad. So, we have worked hard at saying “I love you” to each other and to our kids. (I’ve even gotten to the point of hugging my parents.) In other areas, though, we haven’t coped that well. (We’re both terminally stubborn.) But understanding the tendency to marry someone to solve childhood issues has been helpful in seeing why we expect certain things from adult relationships.Other researchers believe we begin to fall in love even before we’re born. Here’s how they explain it: For nine months there was oneness between us and our mother. No “Mom” and “me,” only the warm, dark oneness of the womb.Even before we were pushed, kicking and screaming down that dark tunnel toward the bright light, we still viewed the world outside the womb as a part of ourselves. The hunger in our little tummies and the breasts that fulfilled that need were one. The need for comfort, protection, and dry bottom were one with the warm, caring blurs that came running at three o’clock in the morning to meet those needs...."
- Sigmund Freud and the Oedipus Complex @ After psychotherapy
- Children use opposite sex parent as template for a partner
- Freud Was (Half) Right About Incest @ Live Science
real self vs ideal self (JunG'S VErSION OF TRUE & False self)
- The Real vs The Ideal Self | listentomethunder - "Humanistic psychologist, Carl Rogers, believed that we all own a real self and an ideal self. The real self of course is what we are intrinsically. It`s the self that feels most true to what and who we really are; the honest self that leaves us most comfortable in our skin. It may not be perfect, but it`s the part of us that feels most real. And it`s the one we need to learn to love the most.The ideal self on the other hand, is the self that we think we want to be, that we strive to be, and that we feel we are expected to be. This self is borne out of influences outside of us. It is the self that holds values absorbed from others; a culmination of all those things that we think we should be, and that we feel others think we should be. We want to accommodate those expectations because we believe we will be more loved and accepted if we do. Holding the values of others is not a conscious decision, but rather, a process of osmosis. For the most part, we are not even aware of it.Sadly, having an overly strong ideal self can be detrimental to our mental health."
- Ideal Self vs. Real Self: Definition & Difference - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- What's Your "Ought Self" Like? | Psychology Today - "The motivational properties of these selves are related to the specific emotions that are associated with the discrepancy between the actual self and either the ideal or ought self. For example, when our actual self does not align with our ideal self, we typically feel disappointed, sad or despondent. When our actual self does not match our ought self, we typically feel agitated, guilty, distressed, and anxious. As the picture above suggests, our perceptions or misperceptions of self and the discrepancy between our actual and ideal selves can have dire consequences[eating disorders,body dysmorphia]."
- The Theory of Self-Actualization | Psychology Today - "The dichotomy of freewill and determinism, because it relies on both freely willed and causal activity, is resolved by art in terms of both the artist’s self-expression and the receiver of artistic expression, in that both of these individuals may be understood to utilize conscious and unconscious aspects of themselves in order for artistic expression and reception to ensue. The conscious and the unconscious parallel the free-will and determinism dichotomy, in that conscious action might be considered to be freely willed and unconscious action may be considered to rely largely on causality.Another dichotomy that explicates the artistic process is a resolution of subject and object. The term “subject”, indicating “the artist” may be indicative of “the self”, and the term “object” may describe “the other” or “the audience”."
- The Real Self Versus The Ideal Self - ChatAfrik- :You have a real self, figure out what it is and live from it. Even a child can see when you are behaving from the false ideal self....Be your real self; if you do you become relaxed and can then smell coffee and roses. Life becomes beautiful when the individual stops pretending that he is who he is not (perfect) and is himself (imperfect) and presents that humble self to other people to relate to.Social conflicts arise when folks want to be seen as the big selves they can never become. You hoodwink no one into seeing you as god for you are not god. You a human being made of flesh and blood hence vulnerable, weak, powerless and imperfect. We strive for power but are never powerful, "
Defense Mechanisms:
- Defense Mechanisms | in Chapter 11: Personality | from Psychology: An Introduction by Russ Dewey
- Defense Mechanisms, descriptions and examples of different types
- Defense Mechanisms @ Simply Psychology - "In order to deal with conflict and problems in life, Freud stated that the ego employs a range of defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant feelings (i.e. anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individual.The ego, driven by the id, confined by the superego, repulsed by reality, struggles to master its economic task of bringing about harmony among the forces and influences working in and upon it; and we can understand how it is that so often we cannot suppress a cry 'life is not easy'! If the ego is obliged to admit its weakness, it breaks out in anxiety regarding the outside world, moral anxiety regarding the superego, and neurotic anxiety regarding the strength of the passions in the id. (Freud 1933, p. 78)."
- Defence mechanisms - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Freud and the Defense Mechanisms of Repression, Rationalization and More | The Psych Files
- The Essential Guide to Defense Mechanisms | Psychology Today
I feel that while people try to push these off onto people who have BPD,depression, Anxiety,etc. “nons” do these as well. They probably do it more since they need to come off as “normal,” and “perfect “ to everyone else. Trying to convince everyone else they are healthier, more mentally sane,etc. than other people. People need to tell themselves they are healthier and sanier than the rest of the world because they like to judge others based on weight, eating habits, sex life, emotional stability,etc. therefore; they must be above them. We see this everywhere with “concern trolls” people who are concerned about another person’s health and mental state as though they are better somehow, or know what is best for someone else. Putting these here so people can be aware of it especially with diet culture, and sanism. I would put this on the Moral IQ page, but the way I like things organized prevents me from doing so :P.
Also, I feel that people who have BPD, depression,etc. NEED to do these things since anytime they say anything their feelings and emotions are minimized and they are discriminated against.
On the other hand, these can be helpful. When mad at a boss, punching something may help.Although punching someone may not help, but taking it out on a punching bag is a great way to burn off steam among other reasons.
Also, I feel that people who have BPD, depression,etc. NEED to do these things since anytime they say anything their feelings and emotions are minimized and they are discriminated against.
On the other hand, these can be helpful. When mad at a boss, punching something may help.Although punching someone may not help, but taking it out on a punching bag is a great way to burn off steam among other reasons.
Repression
- Psychology- Repression uploaded by kenyamyers1
- A-Level Psychology- Repression uploaded by imawizaard
- Psychology Project-Childhood Repression uploaded by Kevin Lucke
- Freudian Defense Mechanism - Repression uploaded by swag
- Repressed Memories - "He used the term repression to describe the way emotionally painful events could be blocked out of conscious awareness so that their painful effects would not have to be experienced....While a child is being abused, for example, the child’s greatest desire is that someone with power and authority will recognize the abuse and put a stop to it. If this doesn’t happen, and if the child simply endures years of pain into adulthood without ever being believed, there will always be a childlike part of the adult that desires desperately—and repetitively—to make others recognize any sort of injustice. This frustration can even be one of the underlying psychological factors motivating terrorism...Yet when children grow up in dysfunctional families, in which the parents are cruel and critical, it can be so emotionally traumatic for the children to admit the truth about their parents’ lack of caring that, to protect themselves from being torn apart by the cognitive dissonance of fear and anger, the children will turn the anger against themselves, blaming themselves for their parents’ cruelty. The children will construct negative beliefs such as “You’re to blame,” or “You’re bad,” or “You’re disgusting,” or “You’re just damaged goods.” And so, under the pressure of this self-imposed judgment, the children will become depressed, because, as every skilled clinician knows, depression is anger turned inwards."
- Repression (repressed memory) definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com
- repression | psychology | Britannica.com - "Repression, In psychoanalytic theory, the exclusion of distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings from the conscious mind. Often involving sexual or aggressive urges or painful childhood memories, these unwanted mental contents are pushed into the unconscious mind. Repression is thought to give rise to anxiety and to neurotic symptoms, which begin when a forbidden drive or impulse threatens to enter the conscious mind. "
- Repression - "To repress something means to put down something that wants to express itself; to make it quiet and contained; to render that thing harmless and controlled. Repression is necessary a social idea by nature (meaning it cannot occur in isolation). It describes a conflict between two or more things. It occurs when one thing puts another down; it is not present when two things cooperate or find a harmonious way to co-exist..In Freud's way of thinking, repressed id desires are energetic things that worked tirelessly for their expression. They are not content to lie there and be ignored. Instead, they continually exerted pressure on the ego to acknowledge their existence The ego must thus continually spend energy to keep itself insulated from repressed desires. There are
varying ways that this energy gets expended, but typically, people either keep themselves busy and distracted so that they don't have to think about what they don't want to think about, or they make either impulsiveness or self-control into a fetish and thus protect themselves from id-desires through excessive devotion to spontaneity or to order." - Repression | Define Repression at Dictionary.com - "Psychoanalysis. the rejection from consciousness of painful or disagreeable ideas, memories, feelings, or impulses."
- REPRESSION: The Ego's Anxiety Filter - "In the 21st Century, we are hearing of new treatments (e.g., EMDR) which seem to modify those filters and help to safely recover (with the assistance of the repair-person, the therapist) "repressed memories" and integrate them back into a less repressed ego. Much has been written about childhood memories, and repressed memories associated with trauma. "
- Psychological repression - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Psychological repression, or simply repression, is the psychological attempt made by an individual to direct one's own desires and impulses toward pleasurable instincts by excluding the desire from one's consciousness and holding or subduing it in the unconscious. Repression plays a major role in many mental illnesses, and in the psyche of the average person.Repression (German: Verdrängung), 'a key concept of psychoanalysis, is a defense mechanism, but it pre-exists the ego, e.g., 'Primal Repression'. It ensures that what is unacceptable to the conscious mind, which would arouse anxiety if recalled, is prevented from entering into it';[2] and is generally accepted as such by psychoanalytic psychologists"
- Repression | Encyclopedia of Psychology
- Repression - "Example:A child who is abused by a parent later has no recollection of the events, but has trouble forming relationships. A woman who found childbirth particularly painful continues to have children (and each time the level of pain is surprising). An optimist remembers the past with a rosy glow and constantly repeats mistakes.A man has a phobia of spiders but cannot remember the first time he was afraid of them.A person greets another with 'pleased to beat you' (the repressed idea of violence toward the other person creeping through).:
- Freudian Repression: Definition & Overview - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- Defense Mechanisms | Simply Psychology - "Freud once said, "Life is not easy!" The ego -- the "I" -- sits at the center of some pretty powerful forces: reality; society, as represented by the superego; biology, as represented by the Id. When these make conflicting demands upon the poor ego, it is understandable if you feel threatened, fell overwhelmed, feel as if it were about to collapse under the weight of it all. This feeling is called anxiety, and it serves as a signal to the ego that its survival, and with it the survival of the whole organism, is in jeopardy.In order to deal with conflict and problems in life, Freud stated that the ego employs a range of defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant feelings (i.e. anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individual."
- Repression (repressed memory) definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com - "Freud was saying that when we have memories, impulses, desires, and thoughts that are too difficult or unacceptable to deal with, we unconsciously exclude them from our consciousness (some people like to say we "push" them down from our consciousness to our uncosciousness)."
- The Psychology of Repression | Psychology Tod - "The conflict begins when the id-derived urges and various associated memories are pushed unconscious, are repressed. However these urges refuse to stay down, and they find substitute outlets whose further consequence is a host of additional defences that are erected to reinforce the original repression, and hold off the id-derived flood and allow the ego to maintain its self-regard....Abnormal repression, or complex neurotic behavior involving repression and the superego, occurs when repression develops and/or continues to develop, due to the internalized feelings of anxiety, in ways leading to behavior that is illogical, self-destructive, or anti-social. A psychotherapist would try to reduce this behavior by revealing and re-introducing the repressed aspects of the patient's mental process to his conscious awareness, and then teaching the patient how to reduce any anxieties felt in relation to these feelings and impulses."
Projection - Delusional projection - Extreme projection
- What is projection?
- Psychological projection - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - i"Psychological projection is a theory in psychology in which humans defend themselves against their own unconscious impulses or qualities (both positive and negative) by denying their existence in themselves while attributing them to others.[1] For example, a person who is habitually rude may constantly accuse other people of being rude. It incorporates blame shifting."
- Psychological Projection: Dealing With Undesirable Emotions | Lifescript.com - "During his sessions with patients, Freud noticed that they would sometimes accuse others of having the same feelings they themselves were demonstrating. By engaging in this behavior, the patient was better able to deal with the emotions he or she was experiencing."
- Psychological projection - RationalWiki - "Examples: An adulterous husband may think his wife is sleeping around.Creationists assert that supporters of evolution are religious zealots, and religious (especially Christian) fanatics assert that atheism is a religion (while sometimes going so far as to say "Christianity isn't a religion; it's a personal relationship with Jesus").Self-proclaimed "Ex-homosexuals" may state that all gays are empty, sinful shells of human beings that need repairing so they can be good, God-fearing straights.The Media Research Center and any other media watchdog that complains about the liberal media and partisanship while being extremely biased and partisan themselves.Racists who claim that anyone who criticises them must also be racially prejudiced.Rare, but can actually happen if someone becomes sufficiently unhinged: a mother yelling at a childless friend about what a horrible mother the childless friend is.Lyle Rossiter, arguably holds a world record for this.Bryan Fischer, who has a sufficiently severe enough case of this that Ed Brayton has named an award after him.Republican commercial organizations encourage rampant consumerism over Christmas obliterating other aspects of the festival. Then Republicans accuse American Liberals of a War on Christmas"
- Urban Dictionary: psychological projection
- Projection @ Changiing Minds - "When a person has uncomfortable thoughts or feelings, they may project these onto other people, assigning the thoughts or feelings that they need to repress to a convenient alternative target.
Projection may also happen to obliterate attributes of other people with which we are uncomfortable. We assume that they are like us, and in doing so we allow ourselves to ignore those attributes they have with which we are uncomfortable.Neurotic projection is perceiving others as operating in ways one unconsciously finds objectionable in yourself.Complementary projection is assuming that others do, think and feel in the same way as you.Complimentary projection is assuming that others can do things as well as you." - 6 Examples of Psychological Projection We All Commit ⋆ LonerWolf - "1. “He/she hates me!”
2. “Oh my god, she’s so fat/ugly/slutty!” 3. “Other people make me uncomfortable.” 4. “If I can do it, other people can as well.5. “That is gross/bad, get it away from me.6. “He/she is having an affair.”
”
Regression
- "Regression (German: Regression), according to psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, is a defense mechanism leading to the temporary or long-term reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather than handling unacceptable impulses in a more adult way. The defense mechanism of regression, in psychoanalytic theory, occurs when an individual's personality reverts to an earlier stage of development, adopting more childish mannerisms.[1] Psychiatrist Joel Gold suggests that careful use of "ARISE" (Adaptive Regression in the service of the Ego) can sometimes yield creative benefits. To the extent that one is handling thoughts and impulses less like an adult, ARISE involves play, appreciation and primitive pleasures, and imagination." - Wikipedia
- @Changing Minds - "Regression involves taking the position of a child in some problematic situation, rather than acting in a more adult way. This is usually in response to stressful situations, with greater levels of stress potentially leading to more overt regressive acts.Regressive behavior can be simple and harmless, such as a person who is sucking a pen (as a Freudian regression to oral fixation), or may be more dysfunctional, such as crying or using petulant arguments.."
- Conscious and Unconscious Regression | Psychology Today - "Since regression is a common phenomenon that occurs most often under stress, we all do it constantly, yet most of it is unconscious. When an executive feels stuck on a problem they regress to infant behavior sucking and chewing their pen down to the cartridge. When a spouse feels neglected they regress by throwing a tantrum and threatening to take something away. A new college student misses home and regresses by cuddling with their child hood Teddy Bear."
- @Alley Dog - "Regression is another one of the defense mechanisms identified by Freud. According to Freud there are times when people are faced with situations that are so anxiety provoking that they can't deal with it and they protect themselves by retreating to an earlier stage of development. For example, my niece was afraid to go to school for the first time (first day of school can be very scary) so she began to exhibit very childish behaviors like throwing a tantrum, crying, not letting go of her mother's leg, and even wetting her pants."
- Regression To The Mean in Psychology: Definition & Example - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- Regression: Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Management - "Regressive behavior can be simple or complex, harmful or harmless to the individual showing the behavior and to those around them. Regression becomes problematic, especially in a hospital, when it is employed to avoid difficult adult situations or stressors. Managing regression in a hospital is resource intensive and can prolong hospital stays.2–5.Regression has been portrayed in a more positive light by others (eg, psychologists like Carl Jung), who have argued that an individual’s regressive tendency is not just a relapse into infantilism, but an attempt to achieve something important (eg, a universal feeling of childhood innocence, a sense of security, reciprocated love, and trust)"
- Psychological Regression – the perils and the power | Who needs normal?! - "Psychological regression is the term that is used for when people engage in behavior that is associated with a younger age or earlier developmental stage than they really are. This kind of behavior is often considered to be immature, infantile, childish, self-indulgent, egoistic or inappropriate. It can range anywhere from harmless, like sucking your thumb or chewing on the ends of pencils, to potentially dangerous, like doing hard drugs."
- Regressive behavior and BPD / PTSD | Who needs normal?! - "Some of the many colorful shades of my regressive behavior:being clingy and in distress when I’m left alone.using a pacifier.having temper tantrums.picking fights.demanding ongoing and undivided attention.using baby-talk.crying as the main response to stress.whining to get my way.resorting to physical passivity and muteness.needing a comfort object.hitting, biting, scratching, kicking.acting silly and playing dumb.claiming not to be able / not to know how to do something.wanting to sit on my mom’s lap or hold her hand or be physically close otherwise.not sleeping alone.not staying with other people or anywhere, really, unless mom is with me. separation anxiety.monitoring and trying to control what other people do.assuming a fetal position and / or rocking myself back and forth.putting my hands over my ears and turning away, pretending to not hear or see anything.replying with “No!” instead of listening to reason"
- William Hay, Writer: Psychological Regression - "Trauma leads to a person having a 'split' reaction to reality, feeling like they're struggling with two or more people inside. Having internal dialogues where they feel others wouldn't be so divided. Alcohol and drugs are so commonly associated with trauma that regression is the norm the worse the disease. Indeed dissociation is considered psychologically to be the fundamental process in just addiction without trauma, the drug and alcohol abuse being it's own trauma as it subjects the brain to what biologically is a full blown chemical assault. What I notice in therapy is a 'baby like' quality or 'innocent' quality in a person mature enough to be less naive. They also commonly are insensitive and indifferent to the really caring people about them. Their choice of friends is often poor and while this is associated with with the shame that is associated with alot of trauma, the fact remains that they commonly seek advice from those who have a limited experience. They commonly look for agreement and react sometimes violently in that adolescent and pre adolescent way to any wise or mature advice"
Adaptive Regression In the Service of the Ego
- Edge (dot) org - "It was ARISE that allowed Friedrich August Kekulé to use a daydream about a snake eating its tail as inspiration for his formulation of the structure of the benzene ring. It's what allowed Richard Feynman to simply drop an O-ring into a glass of ice water, show that when cold the ring is subject to distortion, and thereby explain the cause of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. Sometimes it takes a genius to see that a fifth grade science experiment is all that is needed to solve a problem."
Displacement
- Displacement (psychology) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "In Freudian psychology, displacement (German: Verschiebung, "shift, move") is an unconscious defense mechanism whereby the mind substitutes either a new aim or a new object for goals felt in their original form to be dangerous or unacceptable.A term originating with Sigmund Freud, displacement operates in the mind unconsciously, its transference of emotions, ideas, or wishes being most often used to allay anxiety in the face of aggressive or sexual impulses."
- Displacement @ Changing Minds - "Phobias may also use displacement as a mechanism for releasing energy that is caused in other ways."
- @ Alley Dog -"According to Freudian psychoanalytic theory, displacement is when a person shifts his/her impulses from an unacceptable target to a more acceptable or less threatening target. For example, if you are very angry at your teacher because you did poorly on a test and think the reason for your poor performance is because the teacher asked tricky, unfair questions, you may become angry at your teacher. But, you obviously can't yell at your teacher (really, you can't!), hit your teacher, or express your angry in any other hostile way toward the teacher, so you go home and "displace" your anger by punching your little brother instead."
- Displacement - Defense Mechanisms @ Institute of Clinical Hypnosis - "Displacement occurs when we shift our emotions and actions from the actual desired target to a substitute target, either due to certain beliefs that we have or due to the circumstances. Like in the above example, the girl gets extremely angry at her boss, but she can’t do much since she fears losing her job, so in effect the anger is directed at her younger sister who she perceives as a safer target.The intention behind this unconscious defence mechanism is generally to release the pent up emotions by directing it elsewhere, thereby causing less harm or many a times no harm at all to the person feeling those emotions."
- Psychology: Displacement uploaded by Diamond Cut @ YouTube
- Displacement Effect Theory | Communication Theory - "Displacement effects can be a common issue in many cases and the effects can be minor in most of the cases. But the extreme effects of displacement effects can be dangerous and is considered a psychotic problem that may need to be seriously evaluated and treated. Psychologists can treat with methods to control the emotions with more effective ways of dealing and to overcome this situation."
Sublimation
- "Sigmund Freud believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity (indeed, of civilization), allowing people to function normally in culturally acceptable ways. He defined sublimation as the process of deflecting sexual instincts into acts of higher social valuation, being "an especially conspicuous feature of cultural development; it is what makes it possible for higher psychical activities, scientific, artistic or ideological, to play such an important part in civilised life". Wade and Tavris present a similar view, stating that sublimation is when displacement "serves a higher cultural or socially useful purpose, as in the creation of art or inventions" - Wikipedia
- @ Changing Minds - "Sublimation is the transformation of unwanted impulses into something less harmful...I am angry. I go out and chop wood. I end up with a useful pile of firewood. I am also fitter and nobody is harmed.A person who has an obsessive need for control and order becomes a successful business entrepreneur.A person with strong sexual urges becomes an artist.A man who has extra-marital desires takes up household repairs when his wife is out of town.A surgeon turns aggressive energies and deep desires to cut people into life-saving acts."
- @Alley Dog - "Although many people criticize Freud and discount his ideas, he developed many landmark theories and concepts that persist today (I'm not a Freud groupie, just point this out). One of these concepts is a defense mechanism known as sublimation. According to Freud, sublimation is a way in which people can deal with socially unacceptable impulses, feelings, and ideas in social acceptable ways. For example, a person may have a longing to be a banker but has not been able to achieve this goal (Seinfield fans…are you listening?). The frustration with not being able to achieve this goal may be very difficult to deal with and lead to hostility and anger toward bankers, to the point where the person wants to physically hurt all bankers. Of course, hurting all bankers is not socially acceptable, so the person transforms this anger with bankers into building his own venture capital business and becoming incredibly successful."
- sublimation (psychology) @ Encyclopedia.com -"Freud was against making sublimation a privileged goal of the treatment, one that could even be advocated by the analyst (1915a [1914]). In this, he disagreed with Carl G. Jung (1914d), as well as Lou Andreas-Salomé, whom he had also accused of "blab-bering about the ideal" in his letters to Jung (January 10, 1912), James J. Putnam (May 4, 1911), and Oskar Pfister (October 9, 1918). In all these cases he was struggling against the temptation of an anagogic approach to psychoanalysis. It may be assumed that this threat of having such a complex concept corrupted contributed to the fact that it has never been thoroughly developed. One thinks in particular of an unpublished draft on sublimation written for Freud's projected book on metapsychology."
- Concept of Sublimation in Psychology of Sigmund Freud and Carl Gustav Jung | Therapist, Psychotherapist and Jungian Analyst in Milwaukee - " In this sense terms metanoia, matamorphosis, transubstantiation, rebirth and transformation through which individuation proceeds are synonymous"
"Sexual sublimation
- "Sexual sublimation, also known as sexual transmutation, is the attempt, especially among some religious traditions, to transform sexual impulses or "sexual energy" into creative energy. In this context, sublimation is the transference of sexual energy, or libido, into a physical act or a different emotion in order to avoid confrontation with the sexual urge, which is itself contrary to the individual's belief or ascribed religious belief. It is based on the idea that "sexual energy" can be used to create a spiritual nature which in turn can create more sensual works, instead of one's sexuality being unleashed "raw."The classical example in Western religions is clerical celibacy." - Wikipedia
Denial
- @Wikipedia - “Denial, in ordinary English usage, is asserting that a statement or allegation is not true.[1] The same word, and also abnegation (German: Verneinung), is used for a psychological defense mechanism postulated by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, in which a person is faced with a fact that is too uncomfortable to accept and rejects it instead, insisting that it is not true despite what may be overwhelming evidence.An individual that exhibits such behaviour is described as a denialist[4] or true believer. Denial also could mean denying the happening of an event or the reliability of information, which can lead to a feeling of aloofness and to the ignoring of possibly beneficial information.”
- What Is Denial? @ About Health
- @ Alley Dog - “Denial is a defense mechanism in which a person unconsciously rejects thoughts, feelings, needs, wishes, or external realities that they would not be able to deal with if they got into the conscious mind.“
- defense mechanism @ Britannica.com - “Denial is the conscious refusal to perceive that painful facts exist. In denying latent feelings of homosexuality or hostility, or mental defects in one’s child, an individual can escape intolerable thoughts, feelings, or events.”
transference
- Transference - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Transference is a phenomenon characterized by unconscious redirection of feelings from one person to another. One definition of transference is "the inappropriate repetition in the present of a relationship that was important in a person's childhood". Another definition is "the redirection of feelings and desires and especially of those unconsciously retained from childhood toward a new object". Still another definition is "a reproduction of emotions relating to repressed experiences, especially of childhood, and the substitution of another person ... for the original object of the repressed impulses". Transference (German: Übertragung) was first described by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, who acknowledged its importance for psychoanalysis for better understanding of the patient's feelings."
- Transference (psychology) | definition of Transference (psychology) by Medical dictionary - "in psychiatry, the unconscious tendency of a patient to assign to others in the present environment feelings and attitudes associated with significant persons in one's earlier life; especially, the patient's transfer to the therapist of feelings and attitudes associated with a parent or similar person from childhood. The feelings may be affectionate (positive transference), hostile (negative transference), or ambivalent. Sometimes the transference can be interpreted to help the patient understand childhood attitudes."
- A Client's Guide to Transference | Psychology Today - "2. The classic use of the term transference comes from psychoanalysis and includes: “the redirection of feelings and desires and especially of those unconsciously retained from childhood toward a new object.” We all do this all the time. A boss at work reminds you of your cranky grandmother, so you cower accordingly. The guy next to you on the train reminds you of your college friend Stan so you crack a joke that Stan would appreciate, to the train-stranger's bewilderment. Or the battle cry heard from loving couples around the world: “Stop treating me like I’m your mother!” Perhaps you respond to your younger-than-you female therapist as if she were your father. Transference happens everywhere, including within any therapeutic modality. Psychoanalysis just intensifies it (through all that blank screen stuff) and places it under the microscope."
- Transference definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com - "Transference is a phenomenon where patients undergoing clinical therapy begin to transfer their feelings of a particular person in their lives to the therapist. For example, the patient may begin to feel the same feelings towards his or her therapist as the patient does for his or her lover. These types of feelings may be positive or negative. The therapist must be aware of this phenomenon and may even be able to use it to help the patient. For example, role playing with the patient."
- What is “Transference”? | Phenomenological Psychology - "When put this way the concept of transference borders on the unintelligible. It might occur in a small subset of cases but this hardly is the foundation for a theory of psychodynamic psychotherapy. Its premise is the client is confused about who’s who in her mental life. The client cannot distinguish between e.g. her father and the therapist. Most people who seek psychotherapy are not confused about the people who populate their mental universe. They are well able to distinguish between imaginal figures and actual individuals who exist in space and time. Wanting to talk about one’s relationships with significant people in one’s past is a mode of discussion, not some weird kind of séance, summoning ghosts or spirits from one’s previous history. Many psychoanalytic works treat it with reverence and speak of “the transference” in awe as if it was some kind of a magical transformation. This not only is unhelpful but also is the kind of mystical mumbo-jumbo that casts all forms of psychodynamic therapy into grave doubt and suspicion."
- Transference in Psychotherapy: Definition & Concept - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- Transference in Therapy | World of Psychology
- Psychotherapy : Erotic Transference - "Erotic “love” within the psychotherapy—technically called an erotic transference—is not necessarily a bad thing, though. That is, it’s not a bad thing if it can be understood as one essential step toward learning true love.Just as any child who receives gifts from others must first go through a phase of development characterized by a “hoarding” or “clinging” mentality—Mine! Mine!—before learning to share with others, so you, in feeling the enthralling acceptance of your psychotherapist, will at first want to hoard that feeling and claim it as your own personal possession. But that feeling can’t stop there, and your psychotherapist’s job is to make sure it doesn’t stop there. The child part of you really desires love, not the person who gives the love, and your psychotherapist has to help you understand that."
- Examples of Transference in Psychodynamic Therapy - "Is Transference Easy to Notice? It depends. Of note, these are emotional experiences that a person feels in response to the therapist but likely won’t be able to immediately explain or understand. Generally the roots of these responses are not fully conscious. The idea is that a client can begin to see how their mind works in the unique relationship with the therapist, a relationship that is purposefully structured to make the client’s psychology more apparent and a topic of exploration. Noticing, exploring and working through these emotional experiences in relationship with the therapist is a powerful mechanism of growth in psychodynamic therapy."
- Transference - "Some therapists would disagree with the characterizations I'm about to make, but this is how I see it: transference is something that people do most all the time. It is itself an instance of a more fundamental and general process of perception that all people do which is to read patterns into things that aren't there in an effort to make sense out of incomplete data."
Negative transference
- Negative transference - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Negative transference is the psychoanalytic term for the transference of negative and hostile feelings, rather than positive ones, onto a therapist (or other emotional object)."
- Negative transference- why therapy hurts...
- Negative Transference – Dictionary definition of Negative Transference | Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary - "The two aspects of the transference always coexist, but they do not always appear simultaneously. Hostile feelings towards the analyst does not inevitably mean a negative transference; it may indicate reaction formations, which can augur well for the progress of the treatment, since they are in fact defenses against a positive transference. Conversely, negative transference may have an indirect role only, in the background to a manifest positive transference, yet effectively undermine all therapeutic progress. The absence of forward motion in an analysis may indeed be the only sign of negative transference. Freud himself pointed out that "Bitterness against men is as a rule easy to gratify upon the physician; it need not evoke any violent emotional manifestations, it simply expresses itself by rendering futile all his endeavours and by clinging to the illness" (1920a, p. 164). The negative transference thus means that "the ego treats recovery itself as a new danger" (1937c, p. 238). It may also have a retroactive impact: "If the negative transference gains the upper hand," the successes of the therapy "are blown away like chaff before the wind" (1940a [1938], p. 176)."
- Negative transference with male psychotherapist - "There’s a very simple rule in dealing with the unconscious: the more you try to avoid something, the more important it is psychologically. Therefore, this might be the perfect opportunity for you to encounter your fear of men as you work with a male psychotherapist. Just remember the BIG RULE of psychotherapy: the spoken encounter between the client and the psychotherapist is the core of the treatment. In this encounter you must learn to set aside all your characteristic psychological defenses and speak with complete honesty. And to do that, you have to come to terms with the emotional pain that caused those defenses to come into being in the first place."
Transference neurosis
- Transference neurosis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Transference neurosis is a term that Sigmund Freud introduced in 1914 to describe a new form of the analysand’s infantile neurosis that develops during the psychoanalytic process.Based on Dora’s case history, Freud suggested that during therapy the creation of new symptoms stops, but new versions of the patient’s fantasies and impulses are generated. He called these newer versions “transferences” and characterized them as the substitution of the physician for a person from the patient's past. According to Freud's description: “a whole series of psychological experiences are revived not as belonging to the past, but as applying to the person of the physician at the present moment.” When transference neurosis develops, the relationship with the therapist becomes the most important one for the patient, who directs strong infantile feelings and conflicts towards the therapist, e.g. the patient may react as if the analyst is his/her fathe"
- © POL.it 1999. Merton M. Gill, "Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy: a revision" (1984) (2/2)
- Freud: On Narcissism - "This "transfer" of patients' emotional reactions to others onto the analyst is known as transference neurosis. In the psychoanalytic session, everything the patient says, including statements that reveal the transference neurosis, become part of the materials for analysis. Although it is a neurotic response to the experience of analysis, the tranference can be used to explore aspects of patients' relationships and psychological processes."
- Transference Neurosis definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com - "Tranference Neurosis is a term coined by Sigmund Freud in 1914 to describe a new form of "infantile neurosis" being described or exhibited by a client. With this term Freud made hypothesized that new forms of neuroses can emerge during the process of psychoanalysis and that a neurosis can take the form of the client "transferring" their feelings for a past relationship (i.e. their father) to a male therapist. At this point he theorized that this therapist/client relationship becomes the most important relationship for the client and will result in the client re-enacting past conflicts and other feelings."
- The Therapeutic Relationship- Part I - "To understand the transference neurosis, you have to keep in mind that the patient's experience in therapy approximates early experiences in the present; past traumas feel as if they were actually happening now. The "observing ego," or the part of us that watches what we do and say in some objective manner, watches all this and tolerates the anxiety that is produced. Since the therapist may not meet needs of the patient (the therapist can not be perfect and know all of the client's needs and wishes), and since the therapist does not act like the object of the transference (the therapist is not judgmental like the critical parent, or uncaring like the neglecting parent), frustration results, promoting more regression. This allows for the examination of these feelings, and exploration of the differences between fantasies and wishes versus acts. The observing ego learns more and more about what the whole person does. This is what makes analysis of transference so powerful."
- The transference neurosis in Freud's writings. - PubMed - NCBI - "This paper reviews the evolution of the concept of transference neurosis in Freud's writings. It suggests that the language in which the concept of the transference neurosis is originally expressed by Freud includes an idea of the analyst as aggressively pursuing the analytic cure by waging a solitary battle against the patient's disease. With the representation of the death drive and the larger role accorded to sadism as its external manifestation in Freud's revised drive theory of 1920, the patient becomes the ally; resistance, in the sense of the conservative forces, not disease, in the sense of libidinal conflict, becomes the enemy. It is thus difficult to speak of a transference neurosis in the circumscribed way Freud originally meant it, and he ceased to use the term after 1926 rather than redefine it to fit his broader perspective. In this broader perspective, relative resolution of conflict replaced radical liberation of the patient from disease. That Freud did not redefine the term does not imply that he discarded it, or that we necessarily should. This paper suggests that Freud implied a functional distinction between transference as transforming agent and transference neurosis as result of that transformation. That distinction defines psychoanalytic cure in terms of the understanding of a symbolic transformation which is, through the transference neurosis, reexperienced as part of the psychoanalytic process."
- TRANSFERENCE NEUROSIS - "The term "transference neurosis" was used by Freud to describe that constellation of transference reactions in which the analyst and the analysis have become the centre of the patient's emotional life and the patient's neurotic conflicts are re-lived in the analytic situation.Transference neurosis can only be undone by the analytic work which takes considerable time. According to psychoanalytic theory, it serves as a transition from illness to health. The psychoanalyst uses it deliberately in order to facilitate the access to the patient's repressed past. It is the most important vehicle to success in psychoanalysis. At the same time can become the most solid resistance to working and to change and, thus, the most frequent cause of therapeutic failure. It is undoubtedly one of the lengthening factors in open-ended analytic psychotherapies."
- Transference neurosis | Define Transference neurosis at Dictionary.com - "In psychoanalytic theory, the release of early traumas and conflicts through transference that allows an individual to become aware of the origin of conflict-causing attitudes and behaviors while simultaneously attempting to learn more appropriate responses."
- Transference neurosis | definition of transference neurosis by Medical dictionary - "transference neurosis a phenomenon occurring in most psychoanalyses, in which the patient undergoes, with the analyst as the object, an intense repetition of childhood conflicts, reexperiencing impulses, feelings, and fantasies that originally developed in relation to the parent."
- Transference Neurosis – Dictionary definition of Transference Neurosis | Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary - "The concept appears in Freud in conjunction with the concepts of analysability and cure. Freud considered that only patients with transference neuroses were treatable by analysis. He designated the transference neurosis as an artificial symptomatic illness that expanded in the "playground" of the transference while the patient's other symptoms and external difficulties disappeared. The transference neurosis constituted an "intermediate region between illness and real life" (1914g, p. 154). Cure then involved the annihilation by interpretation of the artificial illness."
Rationalization /rationalizing (psychology)
- Rationalization (psychology) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "In psychology and logic, rationalization or rationalisation (also known as making excuses]) is a defense mechanism in which controversial behaviors or feelings are justified and explained in a seemingly rational or logical manner to avoid the true explanation, and are made consciously tolerable – or even admirable and superior – by plausible means. It is also an informal fallacy of reasoning.Rationalisation happens in two steps:A decision, action, judgement is made for a given reason, or no (known) reason at all.A rationalisation is performed, constructing a seemingly good or logical reason, as an attempt to justify the act after the fact (for oneself or others).Rationalization encourages irrational or unacceptable behavior, motives, or feelings and often involves ad hoc hypothesizing. This process ranges from fully conscious (e.g. to present an external defense against ridicule from others) to mostly unconscious (e.g. to create a block against internal feelings of guilt or shame). People rationalize for various reasons — sometimes when we think we know ourselves better than we do. Rationalization may differentiate[clarification needed] the original deterministic explanation of the behavior or feeling in question[clarification needed]."
- Rationalization | definition of rationalization by Medical dictionary - "an unconscious defense mechanism in which a person finds logical reasons (justification) for his or her behavior while ignoring the real reasons. It is a form of self-deception unconsciously used to make tolerable certain feelings, behaviors, and motives that would otherwise be unacceptable. Everyone uses rationalization at some time or other and in most instances it is a relatively harmless behavior pattern; the danger lies in deceiving oneself habitually so that eventually harmful or destructive behavior comes to be justified in one's mind."
- rationalization | psychology | Britannica.com - "Rationalization is the substitution of a safe and reasonable explanation for the true (but threatening) cause of behaviour."
- Rationalization - "A person evades paying taxes and then rationalizes it by talking about how the government wastes money (and how it is better for people to keep what they can).A man buys a expensive car and then tells people his old car was very unreliable, very unsafe, etc.A person fails to get good enough results to get into a chosen university and then says that they didn't want to go there anyway.A parent punishes a child and says that it is for the child's 'own good'.I trip and fall over in the street. I tell a passer-by that I have recently been ill.A person explains their religious beliefs as 'God's will'."
- Self-Deception I: Rationalization | Psychology Today - "A person who has been rejected by a love interest convinces herself that he rejected her because he did not share in her ideal of happiness, and, what's more, that the rejection is a blessing in disguise in that it has freed her to find a more suitable partner. The first rationalization (that her love interest rejected her because they did not share in the same ideal of happiness) is a case of justifying something that is difficult to accept, sometimes called ‘sour grapes'. The second rationalization (that the rejection has freed her to find a more suitable partner) is a case of making it seem ‘not so bad after all', also called ‘sweet lemons'."
- Rationalization definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com - "Rationalization is a defense mechanism identified by Freud. According to Freud when people are not able to deal with the reasons they behave in particular ways, they protect themselves by creating self-justifying explanations for their behaviors. For example, if I flunk out of school because I didn't study properly it might be so hard for me to deal with that I rationalize my behaviors by saying that I simply didn't have enough time to study because I have a full-time job, a baby at home, and so many other demands on my time"
Resistance
- Resistance in Psychotherapy: Definition & Concept - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- Resistance (psychoanalysis) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Resistance, in the context of the field of psychoanalysis, refers to oppositional behavior when an individual's unconscious defenses of the ego are threatened by an external source. Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalytic theory, developed his concept of resistance as he worked with patients who suddenly developed uncooperative behaviors during sessions of talk therapy. He reasoned that an individual that is suffering from a psychological affliction, which Sigmund Freud believed to be derived from the presence of suppressed illicit or unwanted thoughts, may inadvertently attempt to impede any attempt to confront a subconsciously perceived threat. This would be for the purpose of inhibiting the revelation of any repressed information from within the unconscious mind."
- Psychological resistance - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Psychological resistance is the phenomenon often encountered in clinical practice in which patients either directly or indirectly oppose changing their behavior or refuse to discuss, remember, or think about presumably clinically relevant experiences."
- Psychoanalysis - Resistances - "This action undertaken to protect repression is observable in analytic treatment as resistance. Resistance presupposes the existence of what I have called anticathexis. An anticathexis of this kind is clearly seen in obsessional neurosis. It appears there in the form of an alteration of the ego, as a reaction-formation in the ego, and is effected by the reinforcement of the attitude which is the opposite of the instinctual trend that has to be repressed - as, for instance, in pity, conscientiousness and cleanliness. (Sigmund Freud: Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety, 1926.)"
Intellectualization
- Intellectualization is a defense mechanism where reasoning is used to block confrontation with an unconscious conflict and its associated emotional stress where thinking is used to avoid feeling.It involves removing one's self, emotionally, from a stressful event. Intellectualization may accompany, but is different from rationalization, the pseudo-rational justification of irrational acts. *people may not want to argue so they just go on a diet even though they do not want to*
- @ Changing Minds - “Intellectualization is a 'flight into reason', where the person avoids uncomfortable emotions by focusing on facts and logic. The situation is treated as an interesting problem that engages the person on a rational basis, whilst the emotional aspects are completely ignored as being irrelevant.”
- Intellectualization: Defense mechanisms by Sigmund Freud @ Interpersonal Communication, Relations, and Compatibility - “Therefore, intellectualization works to reduce anxiety by thinking about events in a cold, clinical way. This defense mechanism allows us to avoid thinking about the stressful, emotional aspect of the situation and instead focus only on the intellectual component.Jargon is often used as a device of intellectualization. By using complex terminology, the focus becomes on the words and finer definitions rather than the human effects.
- Intellectualization..isolation from emotions!(A Psychological Tranquilizer) @ Mindful Cogitations - “Intellectualization separates an individual from the emotional constituents and elements of an upsetting happening, redirecting one’s focus towards the facts. The emotions connected to that event are, for the time being, repressed. Intellectualization is a kind of conscious analysis of that information of event which is non-anxiety provoking.”
- What is Intellectualization Defense Mechanism @ Actforlibraries.org - “Some men use intellectualization quite often to express deep emotion. Men do it more because they are not as good at conveying feeling directly than women are. A man could expain his feelings for a woman by utilizing different terms. For example, instead of saying things like ” I like you”. He might use the term ” fond” or ” enjoy being in your presence”. He may indirectly clarify how he feels about a female just to avoid the chance of rejection.”
- @ Alley Dog
- Psychology of Self-Deception Intellectualization by Jim Shamlin - “Intellectualization can in some cases include a great deal of effort. A person seeking to intellectualize a choice may do research on the internet, create various checklists of benefits and detriments, store it all in color-coded binders with graphical representations of data models. None of this changes the fact that they are manufacturing evidence to support an emotional choice.”
Foreclosure
- @ WIkipedia - “Lacan uses the Freudian term, "Verwerfung", which the Standard Edition translates as "repudiation", as a specific defence mechanism different from repression, "Verdrangung", in which "the ego rejects the incompatible idea together with its affect and behaves as if the idea has never occurred to the ego at all."[7] In 1954 basing himself on a reading of the "Wolf Man"[8] Lacan identifies Verwerfung as the specific mechanism of psychosis where an element is rejected outside the symbolic order as if it has never existed.[9] In 1956 in his Seminar on Psychoses he translates Verwerfung as forclusion, that is foreclosure.[10] "Let us extract from several of Freud's texts a term that is sufficiently articulated in them to designate in them a function of the unconscious that is distinct from the repressed. Let us take as demonstrated the essence of my Seminar on the Psychoses, namely, that this term refers to psychosis: this term is Verwerfung (foreclosure)".”
- Foreclosure (psychoanalysis) @ Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing - “For Lacan, 'Foreclosure is a primordial defense because it does not act on a signifier that is already inscribed within the chain of signifiers, but rather, it rejects the inscription itself....This operation of repudiation especially affects highly meaningful signifiers such as the Name-of-the-Father, the guarantor of castration. Lacan viewed the foreclosure of this signifier as the characteristic mechanism of psychosis'”
- @ No Subject - “...From his doctoral dissertation in 1932 on,[1] one of the central quests which animates Lacan's work is that of identifying a specific psychical cause for psychosis..”
Introjection
- @Wikipedia - “Introjection (German: Introjektion) is a psychoanalytical term with a variety of meanings. Generally, it is regarded as the process where the subject replicates in itself behaviors, attributes or other fragments of the surrounding world, especially of other subjects.”
- @ Psychology Wikia - “According to the psychoanalyst Freud, the ego and the superego are constructed by introjecting external behavioral patterns into the subject's own persona.Introjection is also the name of a defense mechanism, which handles threats from the outside that can potentially cause anxiety by infolding them into the internal world of the subject, where they can be neutralized or alleviated”
- Identity and Introjection @ Psychology Today - “Children are looking to their environments to define them. They look into the faces of their caregivers and they see mirrors. They do this, however, not simply to see themselves, but also because they fear abandonment. They feel that they must be whatever is in that mirror in order to maintain a relationship with their caregivers. What they receive from those upon whom they utterly depend is overwhelming. Their sense of self goes with the undercurrent, and they become whatever they see in the mirror. So, what is projected onto them—because the parents have not resolved the issue themselves—the children accept as identity. “ Adult do this with partners, etc
- @Good Therapy - “While everyone learns from the external world and takes on elements of other people’s beliefs and ideas, introjection occurs with minimal thought. A woman who adopts her friends’ views, after they have been carefully explained and considered, is not introjecting, but a child who reflexively adopts a parent’s views without thought can be said to be introjecting.Introjections involve attitudes, behaviors, emotions, and perceptions that are usually obtained from influential or authoritative people in one’s life. “.
- @Wise Geek - “Many psychologists also view introjection as a defense mechanism, especially when children must learn to deal with parents or caregivers not being available at all times. By unconsciously absorbing the parents into the mental process, it is as though the parents are there when they are not. The authority of the parents remains, and their presence is unconsciously felt through introjection. Children may also display a part of this when they learn object permanence, that something is there even when it’s hidden. In some ways, object permanence may help young children make the leap to introjection, so a sense that the parents continue to exist whether or not seen is always felt.”
- @Changing Minds - “Introjection occurs where a subject takes into itself the behaviors, attributes or other external objects, especially of other people.....This can be a defense mechanism where one takes on attributes of a strong other person who is able to cope with the current threat.”
- What is Sigmund's View on Introjection? @ Innovateus - “According to Sigmund Freud a person builds his ego and superego by introjecting the external behavioral traits into his own persona. The superego is the conscience that keeps the id or pleasure seeking aspect of mans personality under check. The ego is the conscious mind that makes decisions based on the conflicting desires of the id and the superego. Freud looks at introjection as a form of defense mechanism where the subject introjects the attributes of a stronger person in the external world. A common example of introjection occurs when the child picks up behaviors from his parents and introjects into his own persona.”
- Introjection In Gestalt @ Evolution Counseling - “”Basically, a person lets inputs from the environment become a part of himself without discrimination. When we move to awareness in the needs satisfaction cycle it is because we notice a change in our equilibrium with the environment. I suddenly recognize that I feel hungry, or scared, or sad, or lonely, for example. Once I am consciously aware of the fact I can do something about it, which means moving through the subsequent stages of the cycle until reaching completion and withdrawal. Introjection means you have not yet reached the stage of awareness.
Distortion
- @Wikipedia - “A gross reshaping of external reality to meet internal needs.”
- Dr. Iman: Defense Mechanism @ Doctor Imanrozali - “”Minor image-distorting level is characterized by distortions in the image of self, body, or others that may be used to maintain self-esteem.”
- defense mechanism : Distortion uploaded by dra.J
- Defense Mechanisms @ Whole Person Counseling - “...the changing of the shape of a reality to make it more acceptable.”
Splitting
Fantasy
Some people say fantasy is bad, that doesn't even make sense.
- @ Wikipedia - "A similarly positive view of fantasy was taken by Sigmund Freud who considered fantasy (German: Fantasie) a defence mechanism. He considered that men and women "cannot subsist on the scanty satisfaction which they can extort from reality. 'We simply cannot do without auxiliary constructions,' as Theodor Fontane once said ... [without] dwelling on imaginary wish fulfillments."
- "Other researchers and theorists find that fantasy has beneficial elements — providing 'small regressions and compensatory wish fulfilments which are recuperative in effect'.[4] Research by Deirdre Barrett reports that people differ radically in the vividness, as well as frequency of fantasy, and that those who have the most elaborately developed fantasy life are often the people who make productive use of their imaginations in art, literature, or by being especially creative and innovative in more traditional professions." - @ Wikipedia
- @ Wikipedia - "Fantasy prone personality (FPP) is a disposition or personality trait in which a person experiences a lifelong extensive and deep involvement in fantasy.[1] This disposition is an attempt, at least in part, to better describe "overactive imagination" or "living in a dream world"
Acting out
Idealization
- “idealization and psychotherapy « what a shrink thinks - “In life, this is not so very difficult to imagine. We all know what it is to be looked up to by a young child, or through the eyes of a junior adult like a younger sibling or a new friend, a mentee, a student, or a protege...One day, strengths will equalize, and a new relationship, one that makes room for two whole people with differentiated and individualized strengths and weaknesses will emerge.And a new kind of intimate collaboration, between participants of equal powers, can begin.It is sweet connection to be amazed and amazing.It is a lovely thing to be surpassed.It is sweeter still to work together, side by side, and to make a meal, more beautiful and inspired, than either of you could have cooked alone.”
- Want a Happier Marriage? Unrealistically Idealize Your Partner @ World of Psychology - “We adapt our perceptions and needs based upon the realities of our partner. We love the things in them that others just don’t get or see. And we work to see them in the best positive light to keep our own cognitive dissonance at bay — we don’t want to believe we could make a truly awful relationship choice....Idealizing a partner might have protective effects because people have the power to shape their romantic fates through their behavior. Indeed, the behaviors that sustain relationships (e.g., being supportive) and the behaviors that undermine relationships (e.g., being critical) are controllable ones”
- @ Wikipedia - “idealization: a mental mechanism in which the person attributes exaggeratedly positive qualities to the self or others”
- The Process of Idealization | Psychology Today - “dealization occurs when we generate positive illusions by maximizing virtues and minimizing flaws. These illusions are a combination of a partner's actual traits coupled with the belief that his or her faults are minimal. It's not that we believe the person we are attracted to is a saint, we just tend to deem their flaws (i.e. the aforementioned shoes, haircuts, and comments) as special and unique.” I didn’t like this part ...“As long as this is carried out to a realistic degree, benefits may incur. However, those who unrealistically lionize lovers, and create qualities that their partner does not possess, may be at risk for disillusionment and disappointment. (Not surprisingly, research has shown that newlyweds reported less satisfaction when their partners turned out to be less ideal than they initially thought.)” Note: If you idealize them, how can they be less ideal than they initially thought? Love them for them instead of what you want them to be.
- Idealization Of Others : A Defense Mechanism Stemming From Childhood Trauma | Child Abuse, Trauma and Recovery - Says that if you idealize someone hey will eventually fall short, but that is why you idealize their shortcomings as well!
- @ Changing Minds - “A teenager in awe of a rock star idealizes their idol, imagining them to have a perfect life, to be kind and thoughtful, and so on. They ignore the star's grosser habits and rough background.A person has bought an exotic foreign holiday. They dream about how perfect their vacation will be, not thinking about insects, heat, crime etc.I buy a sports car and look admiringly at its sleek lines. I ignore the fact that it drinks fuel and is rather uncomfortable.A person in a religious cult idealizes the cult and its leader, assuming they are perfect and that the outside world is very poor in comparison.”
Projective identification
- @ Wikipedia - “Projective identification is a term introduced by Melanie Klein to describe the process whereby in a close relationship, as between mother and child, lovers, or therapist and patient, parts of the self may in unconscious fantasy be thought of as being forced into the other person.While based on Freud's concept of psychological projection, projective identification represents a step beyond. In R.D. Laing's words, "The one person does not use the other merely as a hook to hang projections on. He/she strives to find in the other, or to induce the other to become, the very embodiment of projection". Feelings which can not be consciously accessed are defensively projected into another person in order to evoke the thoughts or feelings projected.”
- Projective Identification @ Changing Minds - “When a person expels a bad object, it may well be onto another person. Projective identification is used to project the bad object into (not onto) another person so it becomes a part of that person.The person then identifies with that other person, and hence has means to control them.The person projected into may consequently be pressured to behave congruently with the projective phantasy, believing and accepting their role. The projecting person may also seek to be physically close to the person into whom the phantasy is projected.”
- Lessons in Psychology: Freedom, Liberation, and Reaction: Demystifying Projective Identification - “A supervisee, we’ll call Jack, told me he found himself feeling hostile and dismissive toward his client, we'll call Jill. Their last session had started, like many before, with her criticizing what had gone wrong the previous session, insistently pointing out lapses in his empathy and errors in his therapeutic technique. She offered this to be helpful, she said, and reminded him that she had assisted her previous therapists this way. He had come to expect sessions to open like this, annoyed by these critiques, but what especially upset Jack was that she then asked if he was sexually stimulated. At that moment, he described feeling awkward and struggled against an urge to humiliate her.”
- What is projective identification? @ Drs Oleary - “‘Projective Identification’ becomes a two-person process. Let's use the above scenario, but this time let's have John and Mark interact. Let's say that John meets Mark, greets him, and then comments to him "You look like you've put on weight." Mark, quite understandably, may feel hurt, and/or angry, and/or embarrassed by this comment. The cause of Mark's uncomfortable feelings, however, should be scrutinized closely, because it is at this moment that we must decide if this pair are accurately perceiving reality or if they have entered into a shared delusional state. If Mark has indeed gained weight recently, his uncomfortable feelings in the wake of John's comments may simply reflect his own feelings about the state of his own body. If Mark has not gained weight recently, we might say that he has become identified with John's projection of uncomfortable feelings about body image. Thus, Mark comes away from the interaction feeling hurt, angry, and embarrassed, when he in fact has nothing to feel hurt, angry, or embarrassed about. He literally gets stuck "holding the bag" of uncomfortable feelings that do not even belong to him in the first place.”
- Projective identification @ melanie klein trust - “Projective identification is an unconscious phantasy in which aspects of the self or an internal object are split off and attributed to an external object.The projected aspects may be felt by the projector to be either good or bad. Projective phantasies may or may not be accompanied by evocative behaviour unconsciously intended to induce the recipient of the projection to feel and act in accordance with the projective phantasy.”
Somatization
- @Wikipedia - “Somatization is a tendency to experience and communicate psychological distress in the form of somatic symptoms and to seek medical help for them. More commonly expressed, it is the generation of physical symptoms of a psychiatric condition such as anxiety. The term somatization was introduced by Wilhelm Stekel in 1924.Somatization is a worldwide phenomenon. A somatization spectrum can be identified, up to and including at one extreme somatization disorder.”
- Somatization @ Changing Minds - “Somatization occurs where a psychological problem turns into physical and subconscious symptoms.This can range from simple twitching to skin rashes, heart problems and worse.”
- Somatization by Jim Shamlin - “There is the common perception that psychosomatic disabilities are not real. One can say that these attacks have no biological basis - but given that the patient experiencing the event is unaware of the cause, it is as "real" to them as any physical symptom and all the more frustrating because they are not attributable to a specific cause of which the patient is consciously aware.”
- @ Good Therapy - “Somatization is distinct from faking an illness to get attention or claiming to have a headache when the real problem is stress. To the person experiencing somatization, the symptoms are real. Somatization is presumed to be caused by psychological distress that the patient is unable to face, and some people, for example, may interpret psychological distress as pain. An anxious person might feel a pit in his or her stomach and begin to focus on the pain, interpreting the physical anxiety as a physical illness.”
- Somatization disorder - causes, DSM, functioning, therapy, drug, examples, person, people @ Mind Disorders (Dot) com -“Individuals with somatization disorder suffer from a number of vague physical symptoms, involving at least four different physical functions or parts of the body. The physical symptoms that characterize somatization disorder cannot be attributed to medical conditions or to the use of drugs, and individuals with somatization disorder often undergo numerous medical tests (with negative results) before the psychological cause of their distress is identified“
Dissociation
IDENTIFICATION:primary identification, narcissistic identification and partial identification
- @Wikipedia - “Identification is a psychological process whereby the subject assimilates an aspect, property, or attribute of the other and is transformed, wholly or partially, by the model the other provides. It is by means of a series of identifications that the personality is constituted and specified. The roots of the concept can be found in Freud's writings. The three most prominent concepts of identification as described by Freud are: primary identification, narcissistic (secondary) identification and partial (secondary) identification.”
- Identification Facts, information, pictures @ Encyclopedia.com - “Identification is an unconscious mental process by which someone makes part of their personality conform to the personality of another, who serves as a model. Described cursorily by Freud in the context of psychopathology, the mechanism of identification has come to refer to a principal mode of relating to others and has been integrated in the processes that constitute the psyche.”
- @No Subject - “In Freud's work the term "identification" denotes a process whereby one subject adopts as his own one or more attributes of another subject.”
- Identification in Lacanian Psychoanalysis Audio Lecture by Daniel Tutt - “ I begin with an analysis of identification in Freud’s Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego and look at Borch-Jacobsen’s critique of Freud in his controversial The Freudian Subject. From there, I move on to Lacan’s theory of identification from his 1961 – 62 Seminar IX on Identification. In conclusion, I turn to the work of Raul Moncayo, a San Francisco based Lacanian analyst who has written on the role of nonidentification and emptiness.”
Primary identification
Narcissistic (secondary) identification
Isolation
- @Wikipedia - “Isolation (German: Isolierung) is a defence mechanism in psychoanalytic theory first proposed by Sigmund Freud. While related to repression the concept distinguishes itself in several ways. It is characterized as a mental process involving the creation of a gap between an unpleasant or threatening cognition, and other thoughts and feelings. By minimizing associative connections with other thoughts, the threatening cognition is remembered less often and is less likely to affect self-esteem or the self concept.”
- Isolation @ Earthpages.ca - “With isolation, memory is not repressed but the emotive content and associated feeling tones are severed or weakened almost to the point of non-existence. Related thinking, feeling and outward activity are essentially blocked for a period after having recalled the painful event.”
- @No Subject - “"Isolation" is the defense mechanism characteristic of obsessional neurosis. The links of a thought, idea, impression, or feeling with other thoughts or behaviors are broken by means of pauses, rituals, magical formulas, or other such devices.
Reaction formation
- @Wikipedia - “”reaction formation (German: Reaktionsbildung) is a defensive process (defense mechanism) in which emotions and impulses which are anxiety-producing or perceived to be unacceptable are mastered by exaggeration (hypertrophy) of the directly opposing tendency.”
- @Changing Minds - “Reaction Formation occurs when a person feels an urge to do or say something and then actually does or says something that is effectively the opposite of what they really want.It also appears as a defense against a feared social punishment. If I fear that I will be criticized for something, I very visibly act in a way that shows I am personally a long way from the feared position.A common pattern in Reaction Formation is where the person uses ‘excessive behavior’, for example using exaggerated friendliness when the person is actually feeling unfriendly.”
- Reaction Formation: Defense Mechanisms by Sigmund Freud @ Interpersonal Communication, Relations, and Compatibility - “In short, reaction formation means expressing the opposite of your inner feelings in your outward behavior.”
- Definition: Reaction-Formation @ CLA Purdue - “For example, someone who feels homosexual desire might repress that desire by turning it into hatred for all homosexual”
- Reaction Formation @ Sociology Index - “In reaction formation there was a certain degree of nihilism; rather than taking money to purchase things they needed, they may throw the money away, give it to others, or purchase useless articles. Reaction formation is usually considered one of the obsessional defences. It has been speculated that an example of Reaction formation is homosexuals acquiring hateful views toward homosexuality, thus leading to homophobia.”
- @Evolution Counseling - “Frederick Nietzsche discovered reaction formation long before psychoanalytic thought emerged, although he believed conscious thinking played a greater role than it actually does: “Have you noticed the kind of men who attach the greatest value to the most scrupulous conscientiousness? Those who are conscious of many mean and petty sentiments, who are anxiously thinking of and about themselves, are afraid of others, and are desirous of concealing their inmost feelings as far as possible.”
- Reaction-Formation Facts, information, pictures @ Encyclopedia.com - “We become social beings by acquiring, as permanent character-traits, "virtues" which move counter to our sexual goals. "A sub-species of sublimation is to be found in suppression by reaction-formation," wrote Freud (1905c), "which. . .begins during a child's period of latency and continues in favourable cases throughout his whole life. “
Suppression
- Suppression and Repression @ Institute of Clinical Hypnosis - “Suppression is a useful psychological mechanism; here we force the unwanted information out of our awareness. We consciously choose to not indulge in a conscious thought, feeling or action even though we are aware of it. This permits us to focus on our affairs without being distracted by every impulse that arises, and without having to act on those impulses.”
- Suppression definition @ alleydog.com - “In repression the person "unconsciously" pushes painful or difficult memories, actions, etc. out of consciousness.”
- Psychologists offer proof of brain’s ability to suppress memories @ Standford - "The findings, published Jan. 9 in the journal Science, reinforce Sigmund Freud's controversial century-old thesis about the existence of voluntary memory suppression." "The big news is that we've shown how the human brain blocks an unwanted memory, that there is such a mechanism and it has a biological basis," said Stanford psychology Professor John Gabrieli, a co-author of the paper titled "Neural Systems Underlying the Suppression of Unwanted Memories."’ "It gets you past the possibility that there's nothing in the brain that would suppress a memory -- that it was all a misunderstood fiction.’”
- suppression @ Vocabulary.com - “Suppression is the act of keeping something from happening — like the suppression of tears while sitting on a public bus.”
- @ Wikipedia - “When an individual tries to suppress thoughts under a high cognitive load, the frequency of those thoughts increases and becomes more accessible than before.Evidence shows that people can prevent their thoughts from being translated into behavior when self-monitoring is high; this does not apply to automatic behaviors, though (e.g., the skinhead scenario), and may result in latent, unconscious actions”
- “Thought suppression commonly refers to the act of deliberately trying to rid the mind of unwanted thoughts (Wegner, 1989). In early investigations researchers demonstrated that the suppression of a particular thought often resulted in the subsequent increased return of the unwanted thought, a phenomenon termed the ‘rebound effect’ (Wegner et al., 1987). “
- Thoughts on suppression @ The Psychologist - “ Thought suppression commonly refers to the act of deliberately trying to rid the mind of unwanted thoughts (Wegner, 1989). In early investigations researchers demonstrated that the suppression of a particular thought often resulted in the subsequent increased return of the unwanted thought, a phenomenon termed the ‘rebound effect’ (Wegner et al., 1987). “
- Repression and Suppression @ Trans4Mind - “Suppression. It is a conscious choice not to indulge a particular thought, feeling, or action. "Not to indulge" means that we are aware of a thought or feeling, but we decide not to dwell on it (internally, by continuing to think about it) -- nor to express it (externally, by acting it out). “
Compartmentalization (psychology)
- @Wikipedia - “Psychoanalysis considers that whereas isolation separates thoughts from feeling, compartmentalization separates different (incompatible) cognitions from each other.[2] As a secondary, intellectual defense, it may be linked to rationalization.”
- Compartmentalizing Psychology @ Flow Psychology - “”Compartmentalizing is a physiological behavior of a person in response to harm caused by frustrating conditions derived from the surrounding external environment. This is a subconscious sudden act of the mind and body to prevent oneself from excessive mental and physical stress and arrogating discomfort due to a person’s contradicting action against beliefs, perspectives and values.
- @Changing Minds - “Compartmentalizing is building walls to prevent inner conflict. To some extent, we all compartmentalize our lives, living different value sets in the different groups to which we belong. Thus we may be ruthless at work but loving at home. We rationalize this by explaining that 'that's just the way it is'.”
- How to Compartmentalize (with Pictures) @ wikiHow
- @Psychology Wiki - “Compartmentalization is an unconscious psychological defense mechanism used to avoid cognitive dissonance, or the mental discomfort and anxiety caused by a person's having conflicting values, cognitions, emotions, beliefs, etc. within themselves. “
Restitusymbolization
Aim inhibition
- @ Oxford Index - “In psychoanalysis, the quality of an instinct (3) that fails to achieve its direct mode of satisfaction or instinctual aim but that obtains partial satisfaction from remote approximations of the behaviour or activity that would satisfy it. “
- @Changing Minds - “Example:A person who sexually desires another person but is unable to fulfill that desire (for example the other person is married) convinces themselves that all they really want is to be friends.A person who wants to be a veterinarian does not get sufficient exam grades, so becomes a vet's assistant instead.“
- Defense Mechanisms @ Cross Creek Internet Counseling - “Placing a limitation upon instinctual demands; accepting partial or modified fulfillment of desires. Examples: (1) a person is conscious of sexual desire but if finding it frustrating, "decides" that all that is really wanted in the relationship is companionship. (2) a student who originally wanted to be a physician decides to become a physician's assistant.”
- AVOIDANCE
- CONVERSION --->CONVERSION DISORDER
- @Wikipedia - “Conversion disorder (CD) is a diagnostic category previously used in some psychiatric classification systems. It is sometimes applied to patients who present with neurological symptoms, such as numbness, blindness, paralysis, or fits, which are not consistent with a well-established organic cause, and which cause significant distress. “
- @Mayo clinic - “For example, in conversion disorder, your leg may become paralyzed after you fall from a horse, even though you weren't physically injured. Conversion disorder signs and symptoms appear with no underlying physical cause, and you can't control them.”
- @Alley dog - “The reason is that conversion disorder is a rare somatoform disorder in which a person has specific, genuine, physical symptoms, but there is no physiological basis for the symptoms...”
Avoidance
Conversion:
Devaluation
Help-Rejecting Complaining
Incorporation
- @Wikipedia - “It is perhaps the most basic form of taking the outside world into the inner world, being focused on bodily sensation and ingestion.”
Substitution
- @WIkipedia - “In psychology, sublimation is a mature type of defense mechanism where socially unacceptable impulses or idealizations are unconsciously transformed into socially acceptable actions or behavior, possibly resulting in a long-term conversion of the initial impulse.”
- SYMBOLIZATION
- @Changing Minds - “Symbolization is a way of handling inner conflicts by turning them into distinct symbols.”
- Psychology of Self-Deception by Jim Shamlin - “”Freud in particular was fond of re-interpreting perceptions as symbols. The notion of the "Freudian slip" seizes on anything a person misspeaks as disclosing hidden and symbolic truths that are cast in a different context, genuinely a sexual one, to convince the speaker of his own unconscious beliefs and desires.”
- @Psychology Dictionary
Symbolization
Symbolic interactionism 's - 'I' and the 'me'
- "The 'I' and the 'me' are terms central to the social philosophy of George Herbert Mead, one of the key influences on the development of the branch of sociology called symbolic-interactionism. The terms refer to the psychology of the individual, where in Mead's understanding, the "me" is the socialized aspect of the person, the "I" is the active aspect of the person.One might usefully 'compare Mead's "I" and "me", respectively, with Sartre's "choice" and "the situation". But Mead himself matched up the "me" with Freud's "censor", and the "I" with his "ego"; and this is psychologically apt'" - Wikipedia
- George Herbert Mead: The Self, ''Me'' & ''I'' - Video & Lesson Transcript @ Study.com
- The Social Self by George Herbert Mead
Pleasure principlE
- "In Freudian psychoanalysis, the pleasure principle (German: Lustprinzip) is the instinctual seeking of pleasure and avoiding of pain in order to satisfy biological and psychological needs. Specifically, the pleasure principle is the driving force guiding the id" - Wikipedia
- "Freudian psychology states that there is a basic human tendency to seek pleasure and avoid pain. It arises from the desire for unrestrained expression of both the life instinct (Eros) associated with sexuality and the death instinct (Thanatos) associated with aggression and destructiveness. Freud described the pleasure principle in terms of the need to discharge or reduce tensions—experienced as pain or discomfort— created internally or by external stimuli. The id, which operates on the pleasure principle, is the instrument for discharging these tensions. However, it is held in check by the ego, operating on the opposed reality principle, which mediates between the primitive desires of the id and the constraints of the external world." - Pleasure Principle - Pain, Seek, Psychology, and Instinct - JRank Articles
- Pleasure Principle in Psychology @ Study (dot) com
- "In Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, the pleasure principle is the driving force of the id that seeks immediate gratification of all needs, wants, and urges. In other words, the pleasure principle strives to fulfill our most basic and primitive urges, including hunger, thirst, anger, and sex. When these needs are not met, the result is a state of anxiety or tension." - About Education
- @Bartleby
disinhibition
- What is disinhibition / online disinhibition? - my blog post about it.
- "In psychology, disinhibition is a lack of restraint manifested in disregard for social conventions, impulsivity, and poor risk assessment. Disinhibition affects motor, instinctual, emotional, cognitive, and perceptual aspects with signs and symptoms similar to the diagnostic criteria for mania. Hypersexuality, hyperphagia, and aggressive outbursts are indicative of disinhibited instinctual drives" -Wikipedia
- Online Disinhibition Effect @ Encyclopedia of Psychology
- Disinhibition definition | Psychology Glossary @ alleydog.com
- @NCBI
- Online disinhibition effect @ Wikipedia - "The online disinhibition effect is a loosening or complete abandonment of social restrictions and inhibitions that would otherwise be present in normal face-to-face interaction during interactions with others on the Internet. This effect is caused by many factors, including dissociative anonymity (or, more precisely, the appearance thereof), invisibility, asynchronicity, solipsistic introjection, dissociative imagination, and minimization of authority."
Drive Theory
- Drive by Daniel H. Pink - "Most of us believe that the best way to motivate ourselves and others is with external rewards like money—the carrot-and-stick approach. That’s a mistake, Daniel H. Pink says in, Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us, his provocative and persuasive new book. The secret to high performance and satisfaction—at work, at school, and at home—is the deeply human need to direct our own lives, to learn and create new things, and to do better by ourselves and our world."
- Dan Pink: The puzzle of motivation uploaded by TED YouTube - " Career analyst Dan Pink examines the puzzle of motivation, starting with a fact that social scientists know but most managers don't: Traditional rewards aren't always as effective as we think. Listen for illuminating stories -- and maybe, a way forward."
- What Motivates Sexual Promiscuity? The psychodynamic meaning of nymphomania by Stephen A Diamond Ph.D " Just because someone, male or female, refuses to accept society's standard regarding sexual self-expression does not necessarily make him or her neurotic, perverted, pathological, antisocial or aberrant. You seem to suggest that, generally, the primary motivation for such "promiscuity" has mainly to do with innate intense sexual drive, combined with a low extrinsic motivation for social acceptance or "honor." But what is "sexual drive"? I have no doubt that different temperaments, sometimes congenital, can include different, e.g., more or less aggressive or powerful libidinal urgings. But here we get into the nature of a so-called "drive." As a clinical psychologist, I think of "drive" as a combination of both biological (endogenous or intrinsic) libidinal energy, intrapsychic structure (including complexes), and external (exogenous or extrinsic) motivation. Or what psychodynamic psychotherapists call primary and secondary gain. In other words, for me, what "drives" us sexually or otherwise is a mixture of nature and nurture, as well as familial, societal or cultural influences. But I consider it a gross oversimplification to reduce motivation in the case of sexual promiscuity to pure biology. Human motivation is a quite complex matter. Much more so than animal motivation....Peggy Guggenheim apparently sublimated or discharged her daimonic energy into her love of art and her art of love. Since the daimonic demands some expression, had she not directed her life force into art and love, had she merely repressed or suppressed it in order to live a more conventional and respectable life-style, she might have fallen into despair, or the daimonic could have come out destructively, negatively or even violently. So it may well be that for Ms. Guggenheim, sexual promiscuity was the best possible and least destructive choice"
- PEP Web - Aggression, the Death Drive and the Problem of Sadomasochism. A Reinterpretation of Freud's Second Drive Theory
- Guilford Press | Aggression, the Death Drive and The Problem of Sadomasochism: A Reinterpretation of Freud's Second Drive Theory
- Motivation - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Drive Reduction Theory - Clark Hull's drive reduction theory was a dominant idea in psychology during the middle of the 20th-century, but it has all but disappeared today. Learn more about the drive reduction theory of motivation and the important influence it had on psychology.
- Drive reduction theory (learning theory) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Drive-Reduction Theory - Motivation at a Glance: An ISchool Collaborative
- Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation | Encyclopedia of Psychology - A theory originally posited in the mid-20th century; attributed all behavioral motivation to the pleasure of meeting a biological need. Drive-reduction theory
- The Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation - The Drive-Reduction Theory was developed by behaviorist Clark Hull as a way of accounting for learning, motivation and behavior. Based on ideas proposed by
- Drive Reduction Theory
- Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation
- Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation: Definition & Examples - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com - There is nothing as motivating to you as the need to eat and drink. You are driven by these biological needs, but why do you work? You are sitting...
- "Drive theory is based on the principle that organisms are born with certain psychological needs and that a negative state of tension is created when these needs are not satisfied. When a need is satisfied, drive is reduced and the organism returns to a state of homeostasis and relaxation. According to the theory, drive tends to increase over time and operates on a feedback control system, much like a thermostat." - Wikipedia
- Drive-Reduction Theory @ About (dot) com - "For example, your body regulates its temperature in order to ensure that you do not become too hot or too cold. Hull believed that behavior was one of the ways that an organism maintains this balance.Based on this idea, Hull suggested that all motivation arises as a result of these biological needs. In his theory, Hull used the term drive to refer to the state of tension or arousal caused by biological or physiological needs.Thirst, hunger and the need for warmth are all examples of drives. A drive creates an unpleasant state; a tension that needs to be reduced.In order to reduce this state of tension, humans and animals seek out ways to fulfill these biological needs. We get a drink when we are thirsty. We eat when we are hungry. We turn up the thermostat when we are cold. He suggested that humans and animals will then repeat any behavior that reduces these drives."
- @SlideShare
- Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation: Definition & Examples
- @Boundless
Eros (concept) (freud
- "Eros, not to be confused with libido, is not exclusively the sex drive, but our life force, the will to live. It is the desire to create life, and favors productivity and construction. In early psychoanalytic writings, instincts from the Eros were opposed by forces from the ego. " - Wikipedia
- Sigmund Freud & Freudian Psychoanalysis @ New World Encyclopedia - "Freud wrote, "Our speculations have suggested that eros operates from the beginning of life and appears as a 'life instinct' in opposition to the 'death instinct' which was brought into being by the coming to life of inorganic substance."
- Life Instincts (Eros) and Death Instincts (Thanatos) @ Very Well - "Sometimes referred to as sexual instincts, the life instincts are those that deal with basic survival, pleasure, and reproduction. These instincts are essential for sustaining the life of the individual as well as the continuation of the species. While they are often called sexual instincts, these drives also include such things as thirst, hunger, and pain avoidance. The energy created by the life instincts is known as libido."
- Eros definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com - "A prime example of life instinct is sex - can you think of something that promotes life more than sex?" [and food :P]
- Thanatos and Eros | Joseph Brown - Academia.edu
- @Changing Minds - Eros (the life drive/instinct, libido) is concerned with the preservation of life and the preservation of the species, It thus appears as basic needs for health, safety and sustenance and through sexual drives. It seeks both to preserve life and to create life.Eros is associated with positive emotions of love, and hence pro-social behavior, cooperation, collaboration and other behaviors that support harmonious societies.
Oceanic Feeling
- The oceanic feeling and a sea change: Historical challenges to reductionist attitudes to religion and spirit from within psychoanalysis. | Janette Graetz Simmonds - Academia.edu
- What is the notion of oceanic feeling? | eNotes
- Oceanic Feeling – Dictionary definition of Oceanic Feeling | Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary - "The notion of an oceanic feeling derives on the one hand from the writings of Baruch Spinoza, who criticized religion but, with his "third degree of knowledge," retained "the intellectual love of God," and on the other hand from Rolland's studies on Indian mysticism: The Life of Ramakrishna (1929/1931) and The Life of Vivekananda and the Universal Gospel (1930/1947). He sent these works to Freud, providing him with a name for a concept hitherto latent in his thinking."
- Oceanic feeling - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia -"Oceanic feeling is a psychological term coined by Romain Rolland and popularized by Sigmund Freud in his books The Future of an Illusion (1927) and Civilization and Its Discontents (1929/1930) to criticize the psychological feeling of religion, the "oceanic" feeling of limitlessness. According to Rolland's definition of the term, this feeling is the source of all religious energy which permeates in various religious systems. It is a sensation of an indissoluble bond, as of being connected with the external world in its integral form.[1] This feeling is an entirely subjective fact and is not an article of faith. Rolland's view is that one may justifiably call oneself religious on the basis of this oceanic feeling alone, regardless if the adherent renounces every belief and every illusion.[2] On the other hand, Freud cannot sympathize with such feeling since he admits he cannot find it in himself. It is not easy, he says, to analyze emotions scientifically. To Freud, this feeling is a fragment of infantile consciousness when the infant begins to differentiate himself from his human and non-human environment. In his opinion, there is not a strong enough need for it to be the source of all religious energy. Freud does not deny that this feeling may occur in people and offers a psychoanalytical explanation.[3]"
- The Oceanic Feeling Revisited on JSTOR
- Sigmund Freud and the Oceanic Feeling | Chuck Bluestein | LinkedIn - "The picture above is Sigmund Freud from Freud Museum London. Wikipedia has a webpage about this called Oceanic Feeling. What I had read about this online was that Sigmund Freud had not had this feeling himself but learned about it. He said that the oceanic feeling (if it existed) is a feeling of unbounded oneness with the universe. He himself had never experienced it. Freud said that this may be what the fetus feels when it is still in the womb and no ego had developed. I had an uncle named Sigmund Bluestein. Everyone called him Simmie."
- "Oceanic" Feelings in Freudian Thought - Google Docs
- Freud's Explanation for the Oceanic Feeling - The Psychedelic Experience - Shroomery Message Board
- Romain Rolland and the Politics of Intellectual Engagement
- The Oceanic Feeling - "Freud called it the “oceanic feeling,” a loss of the sense of self and a feeling of limitlessness or oneness with the world. Freud thought it had something to do with a regression to a childlike mind, the state that we’re in before the ego is formed. We dispute that now, but clearly science can at least discuss it."
- WHY STUDY RELIGION - "The purpose of the study of religion is not to produce religious states of mind. And yet studying religion allows access to concepts that almost inevitably lead to the intellectual parallel to James' "oceanic feeling." For example, reflecting on concepts of divinity—the multitude of gods in the Hindu tradition, the revealed God of Christianity, the gods of the earth in indigenous traditions, and so many other form"
- That Oceanic Feeling | Bully Bloggers - "The future Ocean is helping shape includes but cannot be reduced to one of its key aspects: the prospect of a progressively expanded honesty about and acceptance of same sex desire. Despite his Tumblr post comparing the intensity of homolove to “being thrown for a plane,” the theme of Channel Orange is less sexual orientation than chemical disorientation. Recreational substance abuse resurfaces in almost every song, often as a metaphor for a relationship gone wrong. Or is it the other way around? Is addiction now the core, common experience we are struggling to give sense to, turning to romantic clichés like “unrequited love” in a desperate search for a familiar language?"
demand,Desire,need
- Demand (psychoanalysis) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "In the theory of Jacques Lacan, demand (French: demande) represents the way instinctive desires are inevitably alienated through the effects of language on the human condition. The concept of demand was developed by Lacan in parallel to those of need and desire to account for the role of speech on human aspirations. Demand forms part of Lacan's battle against the approach to language acquisition favored by ego psychology, and makes use of Kojeve's theory of desire.[3] Demand is not a Freudian concept."
- Demand - No Subject - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - "In 1961, Lacan rethinks the various stages of libidinal organisation as forms of demand.The oral phase of development is constituted by a demand (made by the subject) to be fed (which is a demand made by the subject).In the anal stage, on the other hand, it is not a question of the subject's demand, but the demand of the Other (the parent who disciplines the child in potty-training).In both of these pregenital stages the satisfaction of demand eclipses desire; only in the genital stage does desire comes to be fully constituted."
- Long-Distance Psychoanalysis and Demand | dingpolitik
- Desire, Demand, Need, - "
Parataxical Integration
- Parataxical Integration - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Parataxic Distortion & Parataxical Integration - EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE TRAINING FAILS MANY...
- Parataxical Integration - Free definitions by Babylon
- How To Pronounce Parataxical Integration
- Meaning of Parataxical Integration
- Belief vs. Anti-Belief - DX'd - Other - Schizophrenia Forums
- Latest News and Information on Parataxical Integration
- Anagrams of PARATAXICAL INTEGRATION in English
- Parataxical Integration - Expand Your Mind
Love and hate
- Love and hate (psychoanalysis) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Ambivalence was the term borrowed by Sigmund Freud to indicate the simultaneous presence of love and hate towards the same object. While the roots of ambivalence can be traced back to breast-feeding in the oral stage, it was re-inforced during toilet-training as well. Freudian followers such as Karl Abraham and Erik H. Erikson distinguished between an early sub-stage with no ambivalence at all towards the mother’s breast, and a later oral-sadistic sub-phase where the biting activity emerges and the phenomenon of ambivalence appears for the first time.The child is interested in both libidinal and aggressive gratifications, and the mother’s breast is at the same time loved and hated."
- Amazon.com: Love and Hate: Psychoanalytic Perspectives (9781583911426): David Mann: Books - "What is it that interferes with the capacity to experience love? This book explores the origins of love and hate from infancy and how they develop through the life cycle. It brings together contemporary views about clinical practice on how psychotherapists and analysts work with and think about love and hate in the transference and countertransference and explores how different schools of thought deal with the subject. "
- Ambivalence - No Subject - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - "Ambivalence is the simultaneous presence of conflicting feelings and tendencies with respect to an object. During the winter meeting of Swiss psychiatrists in Berne on November 26-27, 1910, Paul Eugen Bleuler described, with respect to schizophrenia, the simultaneous existence of contradictory feelings toward an object or person and, with respect to actions, the insoluble concurrence of two tendencies, such as eating and not eating. In "The Rat Man" (1909d) Freud had already indicated that the opposition between love and hate for the object could explain the particular features of obsessive thought (doubt, compulsion). In Totem and Taboo (1912-13a) he adopted the term "ambivalence" proposed by Bleuler in the text of his conference published in 1911 in the Zentralblatt."
ID, Superego, Ego
- Repression @ Mental Help - "Where the id is concerned with pleasure, the super-ego is concerned with morality and being good. Where the id wants to have candy (e.g., to satisfy its self), the super-ego wants to be thin (e.g., to satisfy others)."
rumination
- Rumination (psychology) - Wikipedia - “Rumination is the compulsively focused attention on the symptoms of one's distress, and on its possible causes and consequences, as opposed to its solutions.[1] Both rumination and worry are associated with anxiety and other negative emotional states, however its measures have not been unified.[2] In the Response Styles Theory proposed by Nolen-Hoeksema (1998),[3] rumination is defined as the “compulsively focused attention on the symptoms of one's distress, and on its possible causes and consequences, as opposed to its solutions”. Because the Response Styles Theory has been empirically supported, this model of rumination is the most widely used conceptualization. Other theories, however, have proposed different definitions for rumination. For example, in the Goal Progress Theory, rumination is conceptualized not as a reaction to a mood state, but as a “response to failure to progress satisfactorily towards a goal””
- Probing the depression-rumination cycle - “Gender aside, ruminators share some common characteristics. They often:Believe they're gaining insight through it. Have a history of trauma. Perceive that they face chronic, uncontrollable stressors. Exhibit personality characteristics such as perfectionism, neuroticism and excessive relational focus--"a tendency to so overvalue your relationships with others that you will sacrifice yourself to maintain them, no matter what the costs," Nolen-Hoeksema explained.
- rumination - Dictionary Definition : Vocabulary.com - “If someone asks you to make a difficult decision — like what to have for dinner — it might lead to rumination, or a long period of deep thought.”
Horney's Theory of Neurotic Needs
Moving Toward People
Moving Against People
Three categories of needs
- Horney's Theory of Neurotic Needs @ Very Well - “These 10 neurotic needs can be classed into three broad categories:Needs that move you towards others.Needs that move you away from others.Needs that move you against others.”
- “Horney's Neurotic Needs @ Changing Minds - “1. Affection and approval...2. A partner...3. Power...4. Exploit and beat others...5. Social recognition...6. Personal admiration...7. Personal achievement...8. Self sufficiency and independence...9. The need for perfection...10. To restrict life within narrow borders
- Karen Horney’s Theory Of Personality: 10 Neurotic Needs @ PsyTreasure - “The neurotic’s needs is much more intense, and people will experience great anxiety if the need is not met or if it even appears that it may not be met in future.”
- Psychlopedia - neurotic needs - “1. Need for affection and approval.2. Need for a partner and dread of being left alone.3. Need to restrict one's life and remain inconspicuous.4. Need for power and control over others.5. Need to exploit others.6. Need for recognition or prestige.7. Need for personal admiration.8. Need for personal achievement.9. Need for self-sufficiency and independence.10. Need for protection and unassailability (not liable to doubt).”
- Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends by Ms. M L on Prezi
- Neurotic needs @ Psycholog - Lexicon
- PTypes - The Neurotic Needs According to Karen Horney - “1. The neurotic need for affection and approval:....2. The neurotic need for a "partner" who will take over one's life:...3. The neurotic need to restrict one's life within narrow borders:....4. The neurotic need for power :5. The neurotic need to exploit others and by hook or crook get the better of them:....6. The neurotic need for social recognition or prestige (may or may not be combined with a craving for power):....7. The neurotic need for personal admiration:....8. The neurotic ambition for personal achievement:...9. The neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence:...10. The neurotic need for perfection and unassailability:...”
- Theory of Neurosis, Moving Toward People, Moving Against People, Moving Away from People - Organizational Behaviour @ Academic library
- Horney's Theory of Neurosis @ Course Resources.mit
- Don Mangus' "It Only Hurts When I Smirk.": Karen Horney's Psychoanalytic Theories of Neurosis and the Self
- Karen Horney - Theories of Personality
Three categories of needs
rooting / sucking reflex
This leads to oral fixation in adults. I have found that some people like to kiss a lot because of this. I do this to which is why I wondered about it. I will kiss people more if I am stressed than when I am not stressed. Also, kissing a plushie (I have a plushie of Homer Simpson I sleep with :D) and I will literally just kiss it until I fall asleep because it makes me feel safe. I'm sure some people do that with their partners. I will kiss sometimes until my lips fall off.
Also putting this here because people will say it's because of this leading to oral fixation that people are obese, but if you researched this you will see that we are programmed to want food and want to eat. We are programmed as babies to nourish our body and eat when we are hungry. Do babies worry about calories? no. They just grab on a nipple and eat.
Also putting this here because people will say it's because of this leading to oral fixation that people are obese, but if you researched this you will see that we are programmed to want food and want to eat. We are programmed as babies to nourish our body and eat when we are hungry. Do babies worry about calories? no. They just grab on a nipple and eat.
- Rooting reflex definition - MedicineNet - Health and Medical Information Produced by Doctors-"Rooting reflex: A reflex that is seen in normal newborn babies, who automatically turn the face toward the stimulus and make sucking (rooting) motions with the mouth when the cheek or lip is touched. The rooting reflex helps to ensure successful breastfeeding.
- Newborn Reflexes - HealthyChildren.org - "One of the more interesting automatic responses is the tonic neck reflex, otherwise known as the fencing posture. You may notice that when your baby’s head turns to one side, her arm on that side will straighten, with the opposite arm bent as if she’s fencing. Do not be surprised if you don’t see this response, however. It is subtle, and if your baby is disturbed or crying, she may not perform it. It disappears at five to seven months of age.You’ll see still another reflex when you stroke the palm of your baby’s hand and watch her immediately grip your finger. Or stroke the sole of her foot, and watch it flex as the toes curl tightly. In the first few days after birth, your baby’s grasp will be so strong that it may seem she can hold her own weight—but don’t try it. She has no control over this response and may let go suddenly."
- Rooting reflex | definition of rooting reflex by Medical dictionary - " a reflected action or movement; the sum total of any particular automatic response mediated by the nervous system. A reflex is built into the nervous system and does not need the intervention of conscious thought to take effect."
- Newborn-Reflexes - "Root reflex. This reflex begins when the corner of the baby's mouth is stroked or touched. The baby will turn his or her head and open his or her mouth to follow and "root" in the direction of the stroking. This helps the baby find the breast or bottle to begin feeding.Suck reflex. Rooting helps the baby become ready to suck. When the roof of the baby's mouth is touched, the baby will begin to suck. This reflex does not begin until about the 32nd week of pregnancy and is not fully developed until about 36 weeks. Premature babies may have a weak or immature sucking ability because of this. Babies also have a hand-to-mouth reflex that goes with rooting and sucking and may suck on fingers or hands.
Undoing (psychology) / Restitution
this can be good since people give gifts to people they do not like - helping them establish a bond and respect with someone they dislike. I If someone has a thought about hating themselves, it can assist in helping someone not succumb to an eating disorder,etc.
- Undoing -- Medical Definition - "n psychology and psychiatry, an unconscious defense mechanism by which one symbolically acts out in reverse some earlier unacceptable behavior."
- Undoing (psychology) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Undoing is a defense mechanism in which a person tries to 'undo' an unhealthy, destructive or otherwise threatening thought or action by engaging in contrary behavior. For example, after thinking about being violent with someone, one would then be overly nice or accommodating to them."
- Undoing (psychology) | definition of Undoing (psychology) by Medical dictionary - "a defense mechanism aimed at negating or atoning for some disapproved act or impulse by performing an action that is somehow opposite to that feared; most commonly seen in the rituals accompanying obsessive-compulsive disorder."
- Undoing - "An act or communication which partially negates a previous one. Examples: (1) two close friends have a violent argument; when they next meet, each act as if the disagreement had never occurred. (2) when asked to recommend a friend for a job, a man makes derogatory comments which prevent the friend's getting the position; a few days later, the man drops in to see his friend and brings him a small gift."
- UNDOING-Psychology - YouTube
Oedipus complex
- Oedipus complex - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Men and women who are fixated in the Oedipal and Electra stages of their psychosexual development might be considered "mother-fixated" and "father-fixated." In adult life, this can lead to a choice of a sexual partner who resembles one's parent."
- Oedipus complex | psychology | Britannica.com - "Freud attributed the Oedipus complex to children of about the ages three to five. He said the stage usually ended when the child identified with the parent of the same sex and repressed its sexual instincts. If previous relationships with the parents were relatively loving and nontraumatic, and if parental attitudes were neither excessively prohibitive nor excessively stimulating, the stage is passed through harmoniously. In the presence of trauma, however, there occurs an “infantile neurosis” that is an important forerunner of similar reactions during the child’s adult life. The superego, the moral factor that dominates the conscious adult mind, also has its origin in the process of overcoming the Oedipus complex. Freud considered the reactions against the Oedipus complex the most important social achievements of the human mind."
- Oedipus Complex - "The attachment of the child to the parent of the opposite sex, accompanied by envious and aggressive feelings toward the parent of the same sex. These feelings are largely repressed (ie. made unconscious) because of the fear of displeasure or punishment by the parent of the same sex.
In its original use, the term applied only to the boy or man.The idea of the Oedipus Complex is derived from Sophocles' Oedipus Tyrannus, during which Oedipus learned that he was cursed to kill his father and sleep with his mother." - Oedipus Complex @ Changing Minds - "The boy thus returns to the mother as a separate individual. That separation may be emphasized with scorn and a sense of mastery over women. that can also be seen in the long separation of boys and girls in play and social relationships. This is a source of male denigration of women.Women become separated reminders of lost and forbidden unity. Their unique attributes, from softness to general femininity are, in consequence, also lost and must be given up as a part of the distancing process. Women become thus both desired and feared. The symbolic phallus becomes a means of protection for the boy and the rituals of mastery used to cover up feelings of loss.Separation leads to unavailability and hence the scarcity principle takes effect, increasing desire. Women thus create a tension in boys between a lost paradise and dangerous sirens.Excessive separation leads to a sense of helplessness that can in turn lead to patterns of idealized control and self-sufficiency.Whilst the boy becomes separated from the mother, it is a long time before he can be independent of her and hence must develop a working relationship that may reflect the tension of love and difference he feels.The relationship thus may return to a closer mother-son tie, where the point of healthy distance is a dynamically negotiated position, such that comforting is available but is required only upon occasion."
- Definition: Oedipus Complex - " According to Freud, Sophocles' play, Oedipus Rex, illustrates a formative stage in each individual's psychosexual development, when the young child transfers his love object from the breast (the oral phase) to the mother. At this time, the child desires the mother and resents (even secretly desires the murder) of the father. (The Oedipus complex is closely connected to the castration complex.) Such primal desires are, of course, quickly repressed but, even among the mentally sane, they will arise again in dreams or in literature. "
Jocasta complex
- Jocasta complex - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia -"In psychoanalytic analysis, the Jocasta complex is the incestuous sexual desire of a mother towards her son.Raymond de Saussure introduced the term in 1920 by way of analogy to its logical converse in psychoanalysis, the Oedipus complex, and it may be used to cover different degrees of attachment,including domineering but asexual mother love – something perhaps particularly prevalent with an intelligent son and an absent/weak father figure."
- Jocasta complex | Analytical Psychology - "– Domineering and intense adoration, which converts into blind worshiping of son;– Insatiable desire of constant physical contact expressing non-incestuous love;– Mother`s unceasing demands of permanent presence of son by her side."
- Poor Jocasta. That’s quite some complex she’s got to overcome, PC thinks | BoyWoman - ". In a cameo scene within a scene, a foreign tourist on the steps of the Tate Gallery, London, moves her son round her while taking his photo ‘like a chess piece’; and you could argue that the relationship of Jonas, half-brother to the heroine Martine, with her own mother is in danger of verging on it – as are some of Martine’s own relationships with boys."
- Jocasta complex | Define Jocasta complex at Dictionary.com - "In psychoanalytic theory, a mother's libidinous fixation on a son."
- Jocasta Complex: The 'Mama's Boy' and His Narcissistic Mother: A Shared Psychosis (Transcend Mediocrity Book 117) - Kindle edition by J.B. Snow. Health, Fitness & Dieting Kindle eBooks @ Amazon.com. - "Many people experience the Jocasta Complex in reference to the proverbial 'mama's boy'. The mother often becomes obsessed with her relationship with her son to the exclusion of many other relationships and interests. She generally only chooses a favorite son whom she puts on a pedestal. She may treat this son as though he is her husband or romantic partner rather than being her offspring. "
Electra complex
- Electra complex - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Hence, women and men who are fixated in the Electra and Oedipal stages of their psychosexual development might be considered "father-fixated" and "mother-fixated" as revealed when the mate (sexual partner) resembles the father or the mother."
- Electra complex | Define Electra complex at Dictionary.com - "the unresolved, unconscious libidinous desire of a daughter for her father: designation based on the Greek myth of Electra and Agamemnon."
- Psychosexual Stages | Simply Psychology - "Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult personality. The id must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between frustrated wishes and social norms.:
- Electra Complex definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com - "In the Greek Myth, Electra wanted her brother to kill their mother. In the Jung's theory (based on Freud's work), a girl learns that her father has a penis and she does not, develops "penis envy," a sexual attachment to her father, and a sense of romantic love for him. "
Overdetermination
- Contradiction and Overdetermination
- Overdetermination | Define Overdetermination at Dictionary.com - "the concept that a single emotional symptom or event, as a dream or a slip of the tongue, may be caused by more than one factor."
- Overdetermination - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Overdetermination occurs when a single-observed effect is determined by multiple causes, any one of which alone would be sufficient to account for ("determine") the effect. That is, there are more causes present than are necessary to cause the effect. In the philosophy of science, this means that more evidence is available than is necessary to justify a conclusion. Overdetermination is in contrast to underdetermination, when the number or strength of causes is insufficient."
- Overdetermination was first used in a social scientific context by Freud - "Overdetermination is an ontology (a theory of being, of cause and effect, of constitutivity) that argues for the significance of all social and natural processes in the determination of all other social and natural processes. For example, Arnold Schwarzenegger is constituted, as a unique human being, by all his experiences and all the experiences that preceded him and all the social and natural processes coincident with all those experiences (which shaped those experiences and therefore shaped Arnie). In turn, he has a distinct effect on all the social and natural processes coincident with his existence."
- Overdetermination @ Generation Online - "First used scientifically by Freud, overdetermination refers to a non-reductionist account of human experience and believes that the constitution of each thing is given by the totality of cause and effects that give it instantiation. In Freud, that includes things not remembered, elements of the sub-conscious that act without being recognised."
- Overdetermination - "The pattern is as follows: a trauma may have little or no effect at first yet a later trauma of a similar kind provokes a symptom by triggering off the provocation of the earlier trauma as well--a process which is continued repeatedly. It is also the pattern of the repetition compulsion (and is thus indicated by the function of the letter in Lacan’s reading of Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Purloined Letter”)."
afterwardsness
- fterwardsness: the Formation of the Memory of Trauma in Narratives | the library of my thoughts
- afterwardsness - definition and meaning - "n. The concept that an earlier event in one's life can later acquire a meaning."
- Afterwardsness | Crispin Balfour at Psychotherapynz - "Freud used this idea to think about the way our histories are constantly being revised in the light of current experience. Our histories are necessarily our experience of our histories and this may, and does, change in profound ways over the course of our lives.In the group tonight we were thinking about a traumatic event in the early life of one of the group members."
- Afterwardsness - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "As summarized by another scholar, 'In one sense, Freud's theory of deferred action can be simply stated: memory is reprinted, so to speak, in accordance with later experience"
cathexis
- How to Pronounce Cathexis - YouTube
- Cathexis or Love? Psychoanalysis Meets Real Life - YouTube - "There is a term called "Cathexis" in Freudian Psychoanalysis that is often used to explain "falling in love." Even if the explanation makes sense, would it change the experience you would want in your life? "
- Cathexis definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com - "The term cathexis refers to an investment of mental or emotional energy put into a person, object, or idea."
- What is cathexis in psychoanalytic terms? | eNotes
- Urban Dictionary: cathexis
- Cathexis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Freud used the term "anti-cathexis" or counter-charge to describe how the ego blocks such regressive efforts to discharge one's cathexis: that is, when the ego wishes to repress such desires. Like a steam engine, the libido's cathexis then builds up until it finds alternative outlets, which can lead to sublimation, reaction formation, or the construction of (sometimes disabling) symptoms."
- Definition: Cathexis- "When the ego blocks such efforts to discharge one's cathexis by way of regression, i.e. when the ego wishes to repress such desires, Freud uses the term "anti-cathexis" or counter-charge. Like a steam engine, the libido's cathexis then builds up until it finds alternative outlets, which can lead to sublimation or to the formation of sometimes disabling symptoms.
- Cathexis Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Cathexis - "Every cathexis has an impact on psychic equilibrium because it reduces the quantity of free energy, but the cathexes most constitutive of the psyche are the drive cathexes. Libidinal cathexis of the object of the drive and of the experience of satisfaction obtained in the subject's interaction with that object constitute the most vital internal objects that can support pleasurable ego functioning."
- Cathexis and Anticathexis - Freudian Theory of Drives - "This investment of energy in an object, idea, or person is known as cathexis. However, since the id does not distinguish between a mental image and reality, it may not lead to direct action to satisfy a need. Instead, the id may simply form an image of the desired object that is satisfying in the short-term, but does not fulfill the need in the long term.For exaple, a person who is hungry may create a mental image of a desired food rather than actually eating.Because of this, the ego is able to capture some of the energy dispersed by the id. When this energy becomes associated with a ego-related activity, it becomes known as an ego cathexis. This dispersal of energy might involve seeking out activities that are related to the need.
For example, a person may purchase a cookbook or watch a cooking show on television when they are hungry.
Body Catharsis
- A psychometric investigation into the body-cathexis scale - "The Body-cathexis Scale is examined to assess its psychometric properties. Results indicate a strong unidimensional measure with high internal consistency. It is recommended as a scale for research into the role of body feelings in self-concept and personality."
- Body cathexis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Body cathexis refers to person's investment of mental or emotional energy (cathexis) in their own body.The Secord-Jourard Body Cathexis Scale introduced in the fifties, linking low body cathexis to low self-esteem, is still in use today"
Death drive
- Definition: Death Drive
- Death drive - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "In classical Freudian psychoanalytic theory, the death drive (German: Todestrieb) is the drive towards death and self-destruction. It was originally proposed by Sigmund Freud in 1920 in Beyond the Pleasure Principle; this has been translated as, "opposition between the ego or death instincts and the sexual or life instincts". In this work, Freud used the plural "death drives" (Todestriebe) much more frequently than in the singular.The death drive opposes Eros, the tendency toward survival, propagation, sex, and other creative, life-producing drives. The death drive is sometimes referred to as "Thanatos" in post-Freudian thought, complementing "Eros", although this term was not used in Freud's own work, being rather introduced by one of Freud's followers, Wilhelm Stekel
- Life and death drives - "Thanatos (the death drive/instinct, mortido, aggression) appears in opposition and balance to Eros and pushes a person towards extinction and an 'inanimate state'. Freud saw drives as moving towards earlier states, including non-existence. ‘The aim of all life is death...inanimate things existed before living ones’ (Freud 1920).Thanatos is associated with negative emotions such as fear, hate and anger, which lead to anti-social acts from bullying to murder (perhaps as projection of the death drive)."
- What theories did Sigmund Freud assert in Beyond the Pleasure Principle? | eNotes
- Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920) by Sigmund Freud - "In this work, Freud reassesses his own earlier theories. Initially Freud argued that the id, the largest part of a human mind, compels the human mind to seek pleasure at all costs and avoid any form of pain. Freud concluded that there must exist another drive after working with patients who displayed odd behavior. Throughout the course of his work, Freud observes that individuals were compelled to engage repetitively in behavior that did not appear to be a source of pleasure. Consequently, Freud had to reflect on his own earlier theories and come up with an explanation for this mysterious behavior. "
- Beyond the Pleasure Principle - YouTube
- Beyond the Pleasure Principle - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Previously, Freud attributed most human behavior to the sexual instinct (Eros or libido). With this essay, Freud went "beyond" the simple pleasure principle, developing his theory of drives with the addition of the death drive(s) (Todestrieb[e])[1] (often referred to as "Thanatos")....The essay describes humans as struggling between two opposing drives: Eros, which produces creativity, harmony, sexual connection, reproduction, and self-preservation; and Thanatos, which brings destruction, repetition, aggression, compulsion, and self-destruction.
In sections IV and V, Freud posits that the process of creating living cells binds energy and creates an imbalance. It is the pressure of matter to return to its original state which gives cells their quality of living. The process is analogous to the creation and exhaustion of a battery. This pressure for molecular diffusion can be called a "death-wish". The compulsion of the matter in cells to return to a diffuse, inanimate state extends to the whole living organism. Thus, the psychological death-wish is a manifestation of an underlying physical compulsion present in every cell.Freud also stated the basic differences, as he saw them, between his approach and Carl Jung's, and summarized published research into basic drives (Section VI)." - Sigmund Freud. 1922. Beyond the Pleasure Principle - Read it online.
- Beyond the Pleasure Principle - Modernism Lab Essays -
Section III consists of an analysis of what Freud terms the “compulsion to repeat," which refers to attempts by neurotic patients to recreate the experience that led to their current mental state. The compulsion to repeat seems to run counter to the notion of the pleasure principle, and Freud relates it to the recurring neurotic dreams and the repetition in the games of children that he discussed in the previous chapter. Often, these repetition compulsions manifest themselves during the patient’s treatment, and Freud relates them to his concept of transference neuroses, in which the patient’s fantasies and impulses, formerly repressed, are acted out in the present." - Beyond the Pleasure Principle: Sigmund Freud, James Strachey - "In what is considered a turning point in his theoretical approach, Austrian psychiatrist, Sigmund Freud outlines core psychoanalytic concepts, including libido, wish fulfillment, and repression. He paints a picture of the human struggle between instincts. The first set, being of creativity, harmony, and sexual connection; and the opposing set, drawing us toward repetition, aggression, and compulsion."
- Freud's Death Instinct - YouTube
- Freud - Death drive, reality principle, and pleasure principle uploaded by khanacademymedicine YouTube
- Freud @ Minerva- "Yet, while Freud designates the death drive as the body’s primitive — most inhuman element — there are also intriguing connections between this most archaic and automatic impulse and that which we understand to be most cultured, creative, and human: conscience, art, religion, or what Freud nominated as the sublimated drive, and the superego. What he calls the highest human achievements—and presumably considers furthest from ‘brute instinct’—are also, in part, products of a primeval genetic legacy, according to Freud. In this manner, the ‘lowest,’ the most acephalous drive, intersects with the ‘highest,’ most creative and intelligent, in the region beyond the pleasure principle. This ‘beyond’ of the pleasure principle interests me because, somewhat appropriately, it takes Freud beyond his comfort zone as a scientific thinker, and as a respected ‘man of letters.’ For, while the concept of the death drives is useful to Freud (for reasons that I will elaborate below), these remarks are also usually only brief, tangential, and speculative, and are frequently accompanied by qualifications that suggest a certain embarrassment (regarding their lack scientific objectivity) on Freud’s part. Accordingly, if Freud derived both pleasure and discomfort from his idea of the death drive, then perhaps this idea itself is an experience ‘beyond’ the pleasure principle. If this is the case then, I would contend, it also constitutes his most valuable (i.e., sublime) contribution to psychoanalysis."
- Explaining Thanatos (The Death Drive) | Thoughts from the Middle Seat - "Stress relief was a common thread. Apparently self destructive behavior was cathartic, gave “emotional release.” One respondent put it especially eloquently,“Because it offers a quick and easy feeling of resolution to things. Like, if you’ve had a protractedly crappy day and are feeling like shit, you feel this slow boil in your stomach, like there’s a weight in there about to rupture something. If I cut myself, though, then it feels like that pain has come to the surface, like whatever was mentally wrong can be translated into something physical. Since physical pain is easier to deal with, it feels like the lesser of two evils.”"
Decathexis
- Explain Freud's concept of decathexis. | eNotes
- Decathexis – Dictionary definition of Decathexis | Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary - "Decathexis describes both the action and the result of withdrawing psychic energy—usually libido—away from where it had been attached to a psychic formation, a bodily phenomenon, or an object.
- decathexis
- The Sibling Connection--Counseling, Support and Healing Resources for Grieving Sisters and Brothers
- Decathexis | Define Decathexis at Dictionary.com - "to withdraw one's feelings of attachment from (a person, idea, or object), as in anticipation of a future loss:
- Decathexis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "In psychoanalysis, decathexis is the withdrawal of cathexis from an idea or instinctual object."
Repetition compulsion
What is it?
destiny neurosis
Familarity
- Repetition compulsion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "The term can also be used to cover the repetition of behaviour or life patterns more broadly: a "key component in Freud's understanding of mental life, 'repetition compulsion'...describes the pattern whereby people endlessly repeat patterns of behaviour which were difficult or distressing in earlier life.""
destiny neurosis
Familarity
- Repetition Compulsion: Why Do We Repeat the Past? | World of Psychology - In spite of not wanting to react this way, the person has created a pattern over years that then becomes familiar to him. To react differently, although more positively, would feel foreign. When someone has done something the same way for years, he or she will continue to do so, even if it causes harm for both herself and others.
- Repetition Compulsion: Why Do We Repeat the Past? | World of Psychology
- The Compulsion to Repeat the Trauma
- The Repetition Compulsion
- Repetitive maladaptive behavior: beyond repetition compulsion. - PubMed - NCBI
- Some Thoughts On the Neurotic Defense of Repetition Compulsion | Brett Newcomb, MA, LPC
- Freuds theory of Repetition compulsion – RUTH WHITE. AN INVESTIGATION OF THE ROLE OF PHOTOBOOKS IN REPRESENTING BRITISH WORKING CLASS LIFE SINCE 1975 THROUGH RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
- Repetition-compulsion | Define Repetition-compulsion at Dictionary.com
- Repetition Compulsion - Loveline Wiki - Wikia
- Essential Secrets of Psychotherapy : Repetitive Relationship Patterns | Psychology Today
- Repetition Compulsion article | The PsychCafe
- Psychoanalysis - Compulsion to Repeat
- repetition compulsion « what a shrink thinks
- Definition: Repetition Compulsion
- The WoN Connection: Repetition Compulsion
- Stop repeating the past-10 ways to break free
Deferred obedience
- Deferred obedience - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Deferred obedience is a psychological phenomenon first articulated by Sigmund Freud, whereby a onetime rebel becomes subservient to the very rules and standards against which they had previously been rebelling."
Catharsis
- Catharsis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- catharsis - Dictionary Definition : Vocabulary.com
- Catharsis in Psychology and Beyond: A Historic Overview
- Catharsis - Examples and Definition of Catharsis
- Urban Dictionary: catharsis
- Catharsis | Define Catharsis at Dictionary.com
- Catharsis | Catharsis Definition by Merriam-Webster
- catharsis Definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary
- Aristotle: Poetics
- catharsis | criticism | Britannica.com
- Aristotle: Poetics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Madonna-Whore Complex
- The Madonna/Whore Complex - AskMen
- Madonna-whore complex | Applied Social Psychology (ASP)
- The Madonna/Whore Complex: - A Primal Therapy Theory Interpretation
- Madonna–whore complex - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Here Is What A Madonna-Whore Complex Looks Like In 2015 | Thought Catalog
- The Madonna-Whore Complex and You
- Unveiling the 'Madonna-Whore' Complex | Alternet
Self-envy
- Self-envy and intrapsychic interpretation. - PubMed - NCBI - "This takes place between an excluded destructive child part and another part usually modeled on a harmonic parental couple or on a creative and successful adult. The former will attack, paralyze, or destroy the latter, out of envy within the self. "
- Self-envy and the concealment of inner resources. - PubMed - NCBI - "This term is an adjunct to the psychodynamic understanding of developmental self-arrest, defined as deliberate and defensive impairment of one's own abilities and accomplishments and the concealment of inner resources."
- Envy and Self-Sabotage - "Earlier this week, our friend Diane came over for dinner. A family member had recently sold her a used Lexus sedan at a remarkably good price, a real “steal”; at the end of the evening, as we were walking her outside, I asked her how the new car was working out. She immediately became visibly anxious and said, “I don’t have a new car.” At that point, her significant other said, “Diane doesn’t feel comfortable having such a nice car so now we have to call it mine.”
- Self Envy - A new concept - Self Envy - "Although envy can be considered negative and destructive, envy can be a driving force. Envy can motivate you to find your passion if you pay attention and hone in on what makes you envious of others. Envy can also help you utilize your strengths especially if you see someone doing something you know you could do, maybe even better than they did. This is usually what can cause negative thoughts towards others especially if we refuse to recognize and really look at what we are feeling, envy. So how does self envy work?"
- Self-envy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "This concept is based on the use of object relations theory, that many psychoanalysts view as a fundamental instrument for examining the architecture of the internal world that describes behavior as influenced by the multiple interactions of early representations of self and other that operate in our inner selves.Self-envy is produced by 'child part self-objects', self representations from early development that remain split off from the self and harbor destructive and envious feelings toward the creative aspects of the self and results from direct aggressive attacks by these childhood self-objects against the part of the self identified with a harmonious mother-father or parent-sibling relationship."
Jointness
- Jointness (psychodynamics) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Jointness is defined as a dynamic process representing an emotional system for attachment and for communication between separate individuals who jointly approach each other in a third, joint, virtual space. Jointness represents an encounter between mother and infant, psychotherapist and patient, or any partners experiencing simultaneously mutual intimacy, while concomitantly safeguarding separateness."
- Jointness (psychodynamics) - Expand Your Mind - "The unique jointness and the unique communication, in a unique psychic virtual space are created by the sharing of interests (emotional or cognitive), and by the mutual investment of partners in a joint phenomenon, object, or idea, meaningful to both. All vital human communication represents both the separateness of the two (or more) individuals and their joining in a third virtual space. Thus, "jointness" elicits the triadic (triangulation) object relations (mother's space - "virtual transitional space" - baby's space).
- Jointness - Jointness (psychodynamics)- "Jointness is a term (1991) in psychodynamics, describing a new look at normal object relation that takes place in a third, joint, virtual space between individuals that are separated from the beginning of life (mother and newborn)."
- Jointness (psychodynamics) Forum
- How To Pronounce Jointness (psychodynamics
Parataxic distortion
- Implacable Otherness: Parataxic Distortion: We Can't See People How They Really Are - "How often do you expect your friends or family to behave in a certain way, and end up speechless when they act the exact opposite? We have to be careful of the expectations we place on others. Our perception of our friends and family, just like their perceptions of us, aren't real."
- PARATAXIC DISTORTIONS - "These distortions amount to cognitive errors which occur whenever we relate to another person not on the basis of the real attributes of the other, but wholly or chiefly on the basis of the person we see in our fantasy."
- Parataxic Distortion: It influences your relationships more then you know | Tyler Jackson | LinkedIn - "Further more, I also think the reason why parataxic distortion can create instant friendship is because a person is so similar to someone you know and because of those similarities you can sync into some of those predisposed "ebbs and flows" the friendship has. Meaning if a joke was funny to your old friend, it might be funny to your new friend, because their make up and neurons and synapses are similar."
- What is Parataxic Distortion - Eckoforce.blogspot.com's blog - "For example: when one falls in love they can create an image of the person as the “perfect match” or “soul mate” only to find out later the person did not match the original perception. The fantasy personality is created in part from experience and from emotional stress. The stress of forming a new relationship or finding a life mate, where one contemplates reproduction, can be seen as stress, although it is perceived as pleasurable. "
- Parataxic distortion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Parataxic distortion is a psychiatric term first used by Harry S. Sullivan to describe the inclination to skew perceptions of others based on fantasy. The "distortion" is a faulty perception of others, based not on actual experience with the other individual, but on a projected fantasy personality attributed to the individual. For example, when one falls in love, an image of another person as the “perfect match” or “soul mate” can be created when in reality, the other person may not live up to these expectations or embody the imagined traits at all.....The fantasy personality is created in part from past experiences and from expectations as to how the person 'should be', and is formulated in response to emotional stress. This stress can originate from the formation of a new relationship, or from cognitive dissonance required to maintain an existing relationshi"
Mortido/Destrudo
- Mortido - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Mortido is a term used in Freudian psychoanalysis to refer to the energy of the death instinct, formed on analogy to the term libido"
- Mortido - Psychology Wiki - "According to psychoanalytic theory, at the basis of human personality lie two fundamental drives: one creative (libido) and one destructive (mortido). Ego-libido is experienced as pleasantly familiar, while ego-mortido is experienced as pain and a fearful unknown."
- Destrudo @ Wikipedia - "Destrudo is the opposite of libido — the urge to create, an energy that arises from the Eros (or "life") drive — and is the urge to destroy arising from Thanatos ("death"), and thus an aspect of what Sigmund Freud termed “the aggressive instincts, whose aim is destruction"
- Destrudo - No Subject - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - "Freud did not want to associate the duality of the drives with a duality of energies, since for him there was no energy dualism, but with a kind of energy monism, that of the libido. He subsequently abandoned use of the term "destrudo," which would have risked implying the existence of an energy dualism."
- Psychaotic - Libido & Destrudo uploaded by Omega
- Destrudo - Psychology Wiki - "Destrudo, or Destrado, is the energy of the destructive impulse. It is the opposite of libido. While libido is the urge to create, an energy that arises from the Eros (or "life") drive, destrudo is the urge to destroy both oneself and everything else"
Reparation
- Reparation (psychoanalysis) - Psychology Wiki - Wikia
- What is REPARATION? definition of REPARATION (Psychology Dictionary)
- Psychology and the Natural Law of Reparation | Political Philosophy | Cambridge University Press
- Psychology and the Natural Law of Reparation // Reviews // Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews // University of Notre Dame
- Bilateral Drawing: Self-Regulation for Trauma Reparation | Psychology Today
- Reparation (psychoanalysis) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
WILLIAM JAMES: OUR INSTINCT IS TO SURVIVE
AROUSAL THEORY OF MOTIVATION/OPTIMUM AROUSAL THEORY
- @About - "According to the arousal theory of motivation, when our arousal levels drop below our individually mandated optimal levels, we seek out stimulation to elevate them.For example, if our levels drop too low we might seek stimulation by going out to a night club with friends. If these levels become too elevated and we become overstimulated, we might be motivated to select a relaxing activity such as going for a walk or taking a nap." - This is why you shouldn't diet, because you might up end slaughtering everyone, or... waste your money going shopping to stimulate your senses.
- @Boundless
- @Psychology Note HQ
- @Slideshare
- @Communication Theroy
Paranoid-schizoid and depressive positions / Depressive position
Diathesis–stress model
Vanishing mediator
Postponement of affect
COMFORT OBJECT
Psychic apparatus
Resistance (psychoanalysis)
Anticathexis
- In psychology, what is the theory of anticathexis? | eNotes
- What is ANTICATHEXIS? definition of ANTICATHEXIS (Psychology Dictionary)
- Anticathexis - No Subject - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis
- Anticathexis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Cathexis and Anticathexis - Freudian Theory of Drives
Psychodynamic
About / Info
- Psychodynamic Approach in Psychology: Definition & Explanation - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- The Psychodynamic Model and Abnormal Functioning - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- Assessing the Psychodynamic Model: Strengths and Weaknesses - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- Common Psychodynamic Treatments: Free Association, Therapist Interpretation, and Catharsis - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com
- Psychodynamics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Psychodynamic Approach | Simply Psychology - "Freud’s psychoanalysis was the original psychodynamic theory, but the psychodynamic approach as a whole includes all theories that were based on his ideas, e.g. Jung (1964), Adler (1927) and Erikson (1950).The words psychodynamic and psychoanalytic are often confused. Remember that Freud’s theories were psychoanalytic, whereas the term ‘psychodynamic’ refers to both his theories and those of his followers. Freud’s psychoanalysis is both a theory and a therapy.Sigmund Freud (writing between the 1890s and the 1930s) developed a collection of theories which have formed the basis of the psychodynamic approach to psychology. His theories are clinically derived - i.e. based on what his patients told him during therapy. The psychodynamic therapist would usually be treating the patient for depression or anxiety related disorders."
- Psychodynamic Therapy | Psych Central
- The Psychodynamic Perspective | Noba
- Core Principles of Psychodynamic Therapy Approach
- SparkNotes: Personality: Psychodynamic Theories
- The Psychodynamic Approach
- Definition of Psychodynamic Theory | Chegg.com
- Psychodynamic theories of personality - Freud, Erikson and Adler
Jacques Lacan's Psychoanalysis
The Imaginary
- Introduction to Jacques Lacan, Module on the Structure of the Psyche
- The Imaginary (psychoanalysis) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- The Cultural Reader: Lacan's Imaginary Order – explanation and summary
- Imaginary - No Subject - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis
- Definition: Imaginary Order - "IMAGINARY ORDER. The fundamental narcissism by which the human subject creates fantasy images of both himself and his ideal object of desire, according to Lacan. The imaginary order is closely tied to Lacan's theorization of the mirror stage. What must be remembered is that for Lacan this imaginary realm continues to exert its influence throughout the life of the adult and is not merely superceded in the child's movement into the symbolic order. Indeed, the imaginary and the symbolic are, according to Lacan, inextricably intertwined and work in tension with the Real. See the Lacan module on the structure of the psyche."
- Jacques Lacan (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
- symbolic, real, imaginary
- Jacques Lacan – The Symbolic – The Imaginary – The Real | Inner Worlds / Outer Space
- The Imaginary Signifier: Psychoanalysis and the Cinema: Christian Metz: 9780253203809: Amazon.com: Books
Name of the father
- Name of the Father - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Name-of-the-Father - No Subject - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis
- Father - No Subject - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis
- The Cultural Reader: Lacan's "Name of the Father" - summary
- Wiley: On the Names-of-the-Father - Jacques Lacan, Bruce Fink
- www.lacan.com/lacinkXXVII3.htm
Mirror stage
- Definition: Mirror Stage @CLA- "In particular, this creation of an ideal version of the self gives pre-verbal impetus to the creation of narcissistic phantasies in the fully developed subject. That fantasy image of oneself can be filled in by others who we may want to emulate in our adult lives (role models, et cetera), anyone that we set up as a mirror for ourselves."
- Lacan: The Mirror Stage - "For Lacan, the mirror stage establishes the ego as fundamentally dependent upon external objects, on an other. As the so-called "individual" matures and enters into social relations through language, this "other" will be elaborated within social and linguistic frameworks that will give each subject's personality (and his or her neuroses and other psychic disturbances) its particular characteristics."
- Mirror stage - Wikipedia - "As Lacan further develops the mirror stage concept, the stress falls less on its historical value and ever more on its structural value. "Historical value" refers to the mental development of the child and "structural value" to the libidinal relationship with the body image.[7] In Lacan's fourth Seminar, La relation d'objet, he states that "the mirror stage is far from a mere phenomenon which occurs in the development of the child. It illustrates the conflictual nature of the dual relationship". The dual relationship (relation duelle) refers not only to the relation between the Ego and the body, which is always characterized by illusions of similarity and reciprocity, but also to the relation between the Imaginary and the Real. The visual identity given from the mirror supplies imaginary "wholeness" to the experience of a fragmentary real. See Lacan's paper, "The Mirror Stage as formative of the function of the I as revealed in psychoanalytic experience", the first of his Écrits.
The mirror stage describes the formation of the Ego via the process of identification, the Ego being the result of identifying with one's own specular image." - The mirror stage as formative of the function of the I as revealed in psychoanalytic experience - AcaWiki - "It’s also important to note that Lacan’s notion of the mirror stage shares affinities with Freud’s conception of identification and narcissism—the latter contributing to the formation of the ego."
- Concentrations 59: Mirror Stage—Visualizing the Self After the Internet | Dallas Museum of Art
- Mirror Phase - "Within the ‘imaginary order’ of this stage, the child continues to build its self image, oscillating between alien images and fragments of the real body. From surreal paranoia, the ego starts to emerge as an unconscious construction. Somewhat wittily, Lacan called this the ‘hommelette’ : the little man, made out of broken eggs. When a baby sees itself in a mirror, it both recognizes itself and misrecognizes itself. The image seems to be psychologically integrated and physically coordinated in a way that the baby does not feel.Adults still feel uncomfortable about themselves as integrated and whole individuals. Self-images continue through their lives to cause narcissistic fascination and/or discomfort in that the image somehow does not look like 'me'."
- What Does Lacan Say About… The Mirror Stage? – Part I | LACANONLINE.COM
- Jacques Lacan (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) - "As a result of all of the above, Lacan considers the recognition that happens in the mirror stage to amount to “misrecognition” (méconnaissance). This likewise holds throughout life for all ensuing experiences of “recognizing” oneself as being a particular kind of “I,” namely, taking qua imagining oneself to be a certain sort of ego-level self (apropos Freudian-Lacanian psychoanalysis, it always pays to remember William Wordsworth's line, “The child is the father of the man”). The ego is not only a congealed, heteronomous object rather than fluid, autonomous subject, but also, in its very origins, a repository for the projected desires and fantasies of larger others; the child's image is a receptacle for his/her parents' dreams and wishes, with his/her body image being always-already overwritten by signifiers flowing from the libidinal economies of other speaking beings. Hence, recognizing the ego as “me,” as embodying and representing an authentic, private, unique selfhood that is most genuinely my own, is tantamount to misrecognizing that, at root, the ego ultimately is an alienating foreign introject through which I am seduced and subjected by others' conscious and unconscious wants and machinations. To borrow one of Lacan's many neologisms, the ego ultimately is something “extimate” (i.e., intimately exterior, an internal externality) insofar as it crystallizes “the desire of the Other” (qua others' conscious and unconscious wants and machinations). Or, as the Lacan of the eleventh seminar would put it, there is something in the me more than the me itself to the extent that this moi essentially is a coagulation of inter-subjective and trans-subjective alien influences."
- Lacan’s Mirror Stage | Terry Gamel's Writing Portfolio - "The entire problem creates an existential image – that we are identified by otherness and not self. Because of this, it’s easy to fall into what Lacan sees as the trap of existentialist philosophy. However, according to Zuern, this creates the problem that the consciousness must be “self-aware,” but Zuern also says that Lacan does not believe in self-awareness; instead, the I is formed from “méconnaissances” – misunderstandings that cause us to have an image of ourselves that is an illusion, and that we do not really know the real us because of this illusion. (“Lacan”)."
- Lacan: The Mirror Stage and Beyond - " Instinct and desire become things that could destroy the ideal-I. But our very ability to say "it's me" depends on the external effect of some image of ourselves reflected in an exchange with the "other" (most often mom, a lover, a close friend)."
- The Mirror Stage @HU.MTU - "We have only to understand the mirror stage as an identification , in the full sense that analysis gives to the term: namely, the transformation that takes place in the subject when he assumes an image - whose predestination to this phase-effect is sufficiently indicated by the use, in analytic theory, of the ancient term imago."
- An Introduction to Jacques Lacan's "The Mirror Stage" - YouTube
- The Mirror Stage uploaded by jessicapressman
Objet petit a
- Objet petit a - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- object_petit_a
- Objet (petit) a - No Subject - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis
- Objet petit a - Cahiers pour l’Analyse (An electronic edition)
- Rethinking desire: the objet petit a in Lacanian theory. - PubMed - NCBI
- Deciphering the Gaze in Lacan’s ‘Of the Gaze as Objet Petit | The DS Project
- The Lacan Hour: The Object petit a - YouTube
- Introduction to Jacques Lacan, Module on Desir
The Symbolic
- Definition: Symbolic Order
- The Symbolic - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- The Symbolic Register
- personal.bgsu.edu/~dcallen/registers.html
- PsyArt: An Online Journal for the Psychological Study of the Arts
- The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain: Terrence W. Deacon: 9780393317541: Amazon.com: Books
- Symbol and the Symbolic: Ancient Egypt, Science, and the Evolution of Consciousness: R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz: 9780892810222: Amazon.com: Books
Sinthome
- Sinthome - Wikipedia - "In "Psychoanalysis and its Teachings" (Écrits) Lacan views the symptom as inscribed in a writing process, not as ciphered message which was the traditional notion. In his seminar "L'angoisse" (1962-63) he states that the symptom does not call for interpretation: in itself it is not a call to the Other but a pure jouissance addressed to no one. This is a shift from the linguistic definition of the symptom — as a signifier — to his assertion that "the symptom can only be defined as the way in which each subject enjoys (jouit) the unconscious in so far as the unconscious determines the subject." He goes from conceiving the symptom as a message which can be deciphered by reference to the unconscious structured like a language to seeing it as the trace of the particular modality of the subject's jouissance.""
- Sinthome - No Subject - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - In 1963 Lacan goes on to state that the symptom, unlike acting out, does not call for interpretation; in itself, it is not a call to the Other but a pure jouissance addressed to no one."
- Symptom/Sinthome – Dictionary definition of Symptom/Sinthome | Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary - "In contrast to medical symptoms, the meaning of which is determined in relation to a referent, the neurotic symptom is blocked speech wanting to be heard and deciphered. Lacan saw the mechanism of metaphor at work in the symptom: when a trauma-inducing signifier is substituted for an element of the current signifying chain, it fixes the symptom and produces its meaning (2002b, p. 158). But interpreting its meaning is not enough. Interpretation works only by focusing on the articulation of the signifiers connected to the symptom; signifiers in themselves are meaningless (1995, p. 270)."
- Disavowed Foundations: What is the sinthome? (and where is it?)
- Sinthome | Larval Subjects .
- THE SINTHOME 14
Lack (manque)
- Lack (manque) | - "Lack (in French, manque), is, in Lacan's psychoanalytic philosophy, is a concept that is always related to desire. In his seminar Le transfert (1960-61) he states that lack is what causes desire to arise.However, lack first designated a lack of being: what is desired is being itself. "Desire is a relation to being to lack. "
- Lack - Cahiers pour l’Analyse (An electronic edition) - "Despite its plural uses over the course of Jacques Lacan’s teaching, lack is arguably the central concept of negation to be found there, as well as the crucial framework for thinking through the phenomenon of subjectivity in Lacanian thought. For Lacan, lack is intimately related to desire; all desire is born from a lack, or indeed a manque-à-être (which Lacan proposed should be translated as a ‘want-to-be’). This lack operates on many levels crucial to psychoanalysis, e.g., symbolic castration is the experience by which the subject comes to recognize that he lacks the imaginary phallus possessed by the real father. Likewise, the infant’s lack of access to the real breast of the symbolic mother results in an imaginary frustration that is essential for the infant’s own ego formation. For Lacan, however, lack came to have a properly ontological remit, or more precisely a ‘pre-ontological’ one. In Seminar XI, in response to Jacques-Alain Miller’s questions concerning the ontological status of lack and the subject, Lacan remarked that the ‘structuring function of lack’ is itself predicated upon a pre-ontological ‘gap’ [‘béance’] that is precisely ‘the gap of the unconscious’ (S XI, 29)."
- Lack (manque) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - "Starting in his seminar La relation d'objet, Lacan distinguishes between three kinds of lack, according to the nature of the object which is lacking. The first one is Symbolic Castration and its object related is the Imaginary Phallus; the second one is Imaginary Frustration and its object related is the Real Breast; the third kind of lack is Real Privation and its object related is the Symbolic Phallus. The three corresponding agents are the Real Father, the Symbolic Mother, and the Imaginary Father. Of these three forms of lack, castration is the most important from the perspective of thecure."
- Lack - No Subject - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - Encyclopedia of Lacanian Psychoanalysis - "Lacan returns to this theme in 1958, when he argues that desire is the metonymy of the lack of being (manque à être).[3] The subject's lack of being is "the heart of the analytic experience" and "the very field in which the neurotic's passion is deployed.[4] Lacan contrasts the lack of being, which relates to desire, with the lack of having (manque à avoir), which relates to demand.[5]"
Four discourses
DiscDiscourse of the Masterourse of the Master
Discourse of the Hysteric
Discourse of the University
Discourse of the Analyst